AFPMB - Venomous Snakes

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Venomous Animals (Shown below)
Venomous Animals by Country

Antivenom information removed (7.1.2008)

For information about antivenom products, producers or sources, you can go to: http://www.toxinology.com, then search by the scientific name (genus and species) of the snake, spider, or scorpion.

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Venomous Animals and Plants
(Last Major Update: Feb 2008)

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Acalyptophis peronii
Acanthophis antarcticus
Acanthophis barnetti
Acanthophis hawkei
Acanthophis laevis
Acanthophis praelongus
Acanthophis pyrrhus
Acanthophis rugosus
Acanthophis spp.
Acanthophis wellsi
Adenorhinos barbouri
Agkistrodon bilineatus
Agkistrodon contortrix
Agkistrodon piscivorus
Agkistrodon taylori
Aipysurus laevis
Androctonus aeneas
Androctonus amoreuxi
Androctonus australis
Androctonus bicolor
Androctonus crassicauda
Androctonus hoggardensis
Androctonus mauretanicus
Androctonus sergenti
Androctonus spp.
Apis mellifera scutellata
Aspidelaps lubricus
Aspidelaps scutatus
Astrotia stokesii
Atheris acuminata
Atheris broadleyi
Atheris ceratophora
Atheris chlorechis
Atheris desaixi
Atheris hirsuta
Atheris hispida
Atheris katangensis
Atheris nitschei
Atheris rungweensis
Atheris squamigera
Atheris subocularis
Atractaspis aterrima
Atractaspis bibronii
Atractaspis boulengeri
Atractaspis congica
Atractaspis corpulenta
Atractaspis dahomeyensis
Atractaspis duerdeni
Atractaspis engdahli
Atractaspis irregularis
Atractaspis leucomelas
Atractaspis microlepidota
Atractaspis reticulata
Atractaspis scorteccii
Atractaspis spp.
Atrax robustus
Atrax spp.
Atropoides mexicanus
Atropoides nummifer
Atropoides occiduus
Atropoides olmec
Atropoides picadoi
Austrelaps labialis
Austrelaps ramsayi
Austrelaps spp.
Austrelaps superbus
Azemiops feae

Acalyptophis peronii

TOC

Identification

Family: Hydrophiidae

Scientific Names: Acalyptus peronii, Pseudodisteira horrida

Common Names: Spiney-headed sea snake, horned sea snake, Peron's sea snake

Description

Medium to large, fairly thick-bodied sea snake, adults usually 1.0-1.3 m long. Pale grey, beige, or pale brown colored body patterned w/ dark crossbands. Scales above & behind the eyes (supraoculars & postoculars) are raised & form conspicuous spines which are most highly developed in mature individuals. Most body scales w/ distinct, dark spine-like central keels.

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Habitat

Found mainly in surface waters adjacent to reefs. Reported from South China Sea & waters around Indonesia, the Philippines, & New Guinea, but it is probably rare outside Australian coastal waters.

Activity and Behavior

Prey on small or medium-sized fish while swimming in coastal marine waters, usually above coral reefs or fairly shallow sandy bottoms, sometimes in silty esturaies. Juveniles often eat shrimp. Ovoviviparous, usually 1-8 young per litter. Seldom encountered by humans in recreational swimming/ diving sites, only occasionally by fishermen. May be more active after dark than during daytime.

Venom Characteristics

Has mainly post-synaptic neurotoxins (reportedly contains myotoxic factors, too), but not well studied. No reported human envenomations (obviously, therefore, no fatalities reported either).

Acanthophis antarcticus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Acanthophis antarcticus antarcticus, A. a. cliffrosswelingtoni, A. a. schistos, A. brownii, A. cerastinus

Common Names: Death adder, deaf adder, todesotter, southern death adder

Description

Description

Medium-sized, stout-bodied viper w/ fairly short slender tail. For description of a closely related species, See Acanthophis antarcticus.

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Habitat

Found mainly in dry, sandy, areas in or near open woodlands or grasslands which include rock outcroppings. See Acanthophis antarcticus. Found in Papua New Guinea & Indonesia (Irian Jaya, Seram, & Tanimbar).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal. Not much reported, but probably prey on available vertebrates (e.g., lizards, small mammals & birds) & are probably ovoviviparous w/ small litter numbers. See Acanthophis antarcticus.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, but may include other factors, too. See Acanthophis antarcticus.

Acanthophis praelongus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Northern death adder

Description

Medium-sized, adults seldom 24 in. (60 cm) long), stout-bodied viper, w/ short narrower tail. Body dark brown w/ narrow lighter dorsal crossbands, much narrower & less obvious than those of the closely-related species, A. antarcticus.

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Habitat

Found mainly in dry, sandy open areas near open woodlands, grassy plains or rock outcroppings. Found in Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland & Western Australia), Indonesia (Seram, Irian Jaya, & Tanimbar), & Papua New Guinea. See Acanthophis antarcticus.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal, often active at dusk or dawn, sluggish during day. Usually await prey in an "ambush" hunting strategy. Will bite quickly if stepped on or disturbed. Slow to retreat when threatened. May hang onto bitten prey or person. See Acanthophis antarcticus. Eat available lizards, small mammals, & birds. Ovoviviparous, litter size not reported but probably few.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly mainly strongly neurotoxic, may also have anticoagulant or cytotoxic factors. See Acanthophis antarcticus.

Acanthophis pyrrhus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Acanthophis antarcticus pyrrhus, Acanthophis pyrrhus armstrongi, Aggressiserpens armstrongi, Aggressiserpens pyrrhus

Common Names: Desert death adder

Description

This is a bright orange-brown or reddish-brown desert species, crossbanded w/ paler shades of body color. Tip of tail usually black. Scales are heavily keeled & give it a bristly appearance. Size & relative body shape similar to A. antarcticus, but a bit smaller (adults seldom more than 75 cm long) & more slender.

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Taxonomic experts have differing opinions, but from 5 to 11 named species are currently recognized as belonging in this genus (8 are addressed individually here). See each separately-listed species.

Common Names: Death adders, "deaf" adders (reportedly, based on their reluctance to move when approached, early settlers presumed they could not "hear" anything approaching them).

Description

Description

Large, heavy-bodied pitviper, adults usually 80-120 cm (max. 138 cm) long w/ fairly long slender tail, fangs may be 12 mm long. Color variable, usually dark gray to almost black w/ 10-19 (usually 12-15) brown to black crossbands, often outlined by thin whitish lines; body may also have yellow, red, or lavendar scales; w/ 2 distinct pale lines along sides of head. Belly dark grayish to reddish-brown, lightest along middle, w/ scattered whitish spots (& often w/ dark chestnut-brown lateral spots).

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Habitat

Most commonly found in seasonally dry, tropical deciduous scrub forest & large grassy plains w/ scattered trees, mainly in coastal foothills in parts of southern & western Mexico & Central America. Often shelters in crevices or under rocks. Mainly found in lower to moderate elevations, usually <600 m (max. about 1,500 m). Also found in the Rio Chixoy (Negro) Valley in central Guatemala.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & mainly nocturnal. Agressive when provoked; will strike repeatedly. Ovoviviparous w/ each female bearing about a dozen 10-inch long neonates/ litter. Preys on available small mammals, lizards, birds, amphibians & reptiles. Juveniles often eat invertebrates, too.

Venom Characteristics

Primarily hemotoxic, necrotic effects reportedly often extensive; serious human envenomations & fatalities have occurred. This apecies is the third most frequent cause of snake envenomations of humans in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico.

Agkistrodon contortrix

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix, A. c. laticinctus, A. c. mokeson, A. c. mokasen, A. c. phaenogaster, A. c. pictigaster, A. mokesen austrinus, A. mokason cupreus, A. m. pictigaster, Boa contortrix, Cenchris atrofuscus, C. contortrix, C. marmorata, C. mokasen, C. mokeson, Scytalus cupreus, S. mokeson, Tisiphone cuprea, Trigonocephalus atrofuscus, T. cenchris, T. contortrix, T. histrionicus

Common Names: Copperhead, Southern Copperhead, Northern Copperhead, Broad-banded Copperhead, Osage Copperhead, Trans-Pecos Copperhead, Upland Moccasin, Kupferkopf, beech leaf snake, congo, rusty moccasin, copper snake, dumb rattlesnake, copper adder

Description

Medium-sized, stout-bodied pitviper, adults usually 40-80 cm long. Body usually pale brown, tan or reddish-brown, w/ alternating broad bands of light (pale grayish-yellow to tan) & dark (sandy, chestnut or chocolate brown), a very thin pale line postocular stripe. Tail of young copperheads is usually rather bright yellow (sometimes w/ a greenish tint).

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Habitat

Most common in wooded regions containing rocky canyons, springs, or streams; may be found far from permanent water in desert scrub areas, & sometimes in low coastal areas. Found from southeastern Nebraska & Iowa east to Massachusetts & south into northeastern corner of Mexico (at least in the Rio Grande valley) & all U.S. states south & east of those listed.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal; often basks in sunny spots, has a tendency to follow prey close to civilized areas. Preys on small mammals, birds, frogs, & cicadas (sometimes climbing in bushes to catch them). Females bear 8-inch long, live young, usually in or near former hybernation sites.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic & relatively mild; seldom injects large amounts of venom. Bites can produce severe local pain but fatalities are very rare.

Agkistrodon piscivorus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Acontias leucostoma, Agkistrodon piscivorus conanti, A. p. leucostoma, A. p. piscivorus, Ancistrodon piscivorax, A. p. piscovorax, A. p. pugnax, Crotalus piscivorus, Toxicophis piscivorus, Trigonocephalus piscivorus

Common Names: Engl.: Cottonmouth (several subspecies are respectively called eastern, Western and Florida Cottonmouths), water mocassin, gapper, snap jaw, black moccasin, congo, Native Amer.: hiwa, hiwachoba, okifa chinto, we'-ts'a u-bi-xo

Description

Heavy-bodied pitviper, adults about 80-150 cm long (max. 180 cm); olive to light or dark brown, w/ dark brown or black irregular-edged crossbands, belly & chin usually white to tan (darker toward tail), adults' tail dark, inside of mouth & throat strikingly white, tongue bright red, 23-27 midbody dorsal scale rows. Juveniles usually paler, more brightly patterned, w/ yellow tail tip. Eastern & southeastern populations usually paler & stouter. Completely dark & very pale individuals occur.

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Habitat

Found mainly in or near water, like swamps, streams, or lakes; but often considerable distances away in fields or open forest. Reported from the Rio Grande valley in southern Texas to Kansas, then east through Iowa & southern Indiana to southeastern Virginia, and all areas south and east from there. Can bite under water, despite a common belief that they can't. May have formerly been present on the Mexican side of the Rio Grande, but no confirmed records.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, but often basks in sunlight on rocks or logs in or by water. If disturbed while in or near water, they usually slip into the water and swim away. If cornered away from water, often form a coil, arch the head back and gape the mouth wide, showing strikingly white interior. Eat small mammals, fish, amphibians, birds, etc. May become aggressive if disturbed. Can bite very effectively under water.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic, often includes a thrombin-like anticoagulation effect, envenomation has been reported historically to cause a number of human fatalities, but in one set of careful observations, less than 20% of known envenomations were fatal (without any antivenom given).

Agkistrodon taylori

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Ancistrodon bilineatus, Agkistrodon bilineatus, A. b. lemosespinali, A. b. taylori

Common Names: Taylor's cantil, Cola huesco, hueson, metapil, navaja, Mexican Moccasin

Description

Fairly large, heavy-bodied pitviper, adults usually 64-90 cm long (max. 96+ cm), tail relatively shorter than for A. bilineatus. Color variable, body usually grayish to brownish-gray w/ 11-16 (avg. 13) dark dorsal crossbands, irregularly outlined w/ rows of white to yellow-orange flecks (may also have some reddish & orange scales). Has 2 distinct, pale (yellowish-white) stripes along each side of head. Juveniles w/ gray & creamy-yellow dorsal crossbands & yellow tail tip.

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Habitat

Mainly found in mesquite-grassland, thornforest, & tropical deciduous forest in northeastern Mexico. Most often found away from water, on or near rocky hillsides, w/ abundant limestone outcroppings. Limited to Mexican states of Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, & Hidalgo (& maybe eastern Coahuila) & usually at moderate or lower elevations of <600 m.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, & mainly nocturnal. Preys mainly on available lizards, small mammals, & birds, but often also eats grasshoppers & other arthropods. Sometimes basks in morning sunlight. Ovoviviparous w/ 3-10 young/ litter observed for captured specimens.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Can cause extensive tissue necrosis. Serious human envenomations and deaths have been reported to have been caused by this species.

Aipysurus laevis

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Identification

Family: Hydrophiidae

Scientific Names: Aipysurus fuliginosus, Hypotropis jukesii

Common Names: Olive-brown sea snake, large olive sea snake, olive pipe sea snake

Description

Large, sea snake (up to 2.0 m long); body generally cylindrical w/ dark olive-colored to brownish-green dorsal surface & cream to light yellow-gray venter (usually including more than half the body surface). Tail somewhat laterally flattened. One pair of upper fixed front fangs.

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Habitat

Found in marine waters around Indonesia, Timor, New Guinea, east to New Caledonia, & Australia (Western Australia, North Territory, & Queensland). Usually found in small individual home ranges around a single coral outcropping (bommie).

Activity and Behavior

Prey on various fish, & sometimes prawns, along relatively shallow to moderately-deep coral reefs. Generally docile, but inquisitive, & will investigate new things or people in their location; may be attracted to a divers' face plate; when rebuffed, they will sometimes become aggressive & pursue (& may try to bite) a diver. Ovoviviparous, usually bearing 1-5 young / litter.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly post-synaptic neurotoxins & myotoxins, but contains factors which may also be cytotoxic. Serious, non-fatal snake bites & envenomations of humans by this species have been recorded. Fangs of adults can be 4.7 mm long, & can penetrate some divers' neoprene wetsuits.

Androctonus aeneas

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Androctonus aeneas liouvillei

Common Names: Black scorpion, fat-tailed scorpion

Description

Medium to large sized dark, fat-tailed scorpion, adults usually about 50 mm long, very similar in appearance to A. australis & A. crassicauda.

Habitat

Mainly found in arid or semi-arid sites, usually w/ sandy soil, in northwestern Africa. For more detailed description of typical local habitat for a closely-related species, See Androctonus crassicauda.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, hides in crevices or under various objects during the day. Preys on a variety of available insects & invertebrates, & sometimes small lizards. Mating involves a courtship "dance." Young (usually 5-20+) hatch from eggs within female, then crawl out her genital opening. Often use both pincers & sting in defense & to capture & subdue prey.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Mainly neurotoxic, w/ several body systems & organs of humans being affected. Usually causes immediate local pain, reddening & swelling at sting site; has caused death of human children.

Androctonus amoreuxi

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Fat-tailed scorpion, black scorpion (some color forms)

Description

Very similar in size, appearance, & physical characters to both A. australis & A. crassicauda.

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Habitat

Fairly wide-spread in northern Africa & Middle East; Probably also occurs in Iraq, Syria, & Libya, but no verified specimens from there. For general description of typical habitat for a closely-related species, See Androctonus crassicauda.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, hides in crevices & under various objects during day. Preys on a variety of insects & other arthropods (may be cannibalistic), & sometimes small lizards. Uses both pedipalps & sting in defense & to capture prey. Mate via elaborate courtship "dance," typically 5-30+ young hatch within female & crawl out of her genital opening.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, w/ cardiotoxic & myotoxic factors. Venom reportedly less potent than that of A. austalis &/or A. crassicauda.

Androctonus australis

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Androctonus australis australis, A. a. hector

Common Names: Dark desert scorpion, fat-tailed scorpion

Description

Largest species of the dark, fat-tailed scorpions in this genus. Adults usually 50-80 mm long (max. 110+ mm). Body heavy, usually medium to dark brown, w/ legs yellow-brown & tips of pincers & telson almost black; 4 dorsal ridges w/ serrate crests along each post-abdomen segment. Numerous short, stiff dark hairs &/or spines scattered over body & post-abdomen. Pincers (pedipalps) large, robust at base; generally fearsome-looking, re-curved spine at tip of tail.

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Habitat

Found mainly in margins of deserts or very arid places across most of North Africa, Pakistan & India, & very likely most Middle-Eastern countries between (but not many specimens collected there, so far). Occurs mainly in very dry areas, seldom very near a coast or permanent body of water. Most wide-spread geographically, of any species in this genus.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, hides in crevices or under various objects during day. Can climb most vertical surfaces very well (to >20 ft. above ground). Preys on a wide range of insects, invertebrates, other scorpions (sometimes cannibalistic), small lizards & sometimes even small mammals. Mating involves elaborate courtship "dance." Young (usually 5-35+) hatch within female & then crawl out her genital opening. Use both sting & pincers in defense & for prey capture.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic w/ additional cardiotoxic, myotoxic & hemotoxic factors. Often affects several body organs & systems of humans; mainly respiratory or cardiac. Human deaths reportedly most often due to respiratory or heart failure; sometimes cerebral hemorrhage, critical organ dysfunction, or shock may be involved. Has the most potent venom of any species in this genus.

Androctonus bicolor

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Fat-tailed scorpion, black scorpion, bi-colored scorpion

Description

Medium-sized, dark fat-tailed scorpion, adults usually 40-60 mm long (max. about 80 mm). Body usually very dark, like A. crassicauda, but terminal segments of legs & pedipalpi lighter yellowish-brown. Pincers not as robust at base as those of A. crassicauda.

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Habitat

Mainly found in arid, semi-arid or margins of desert sites, usually w/ sandy soil. Found in very similar conditions to those suitable for A. crassicauda, & geographic distribution greatly overlaps that of A. crassicauda. Reported from several countries in the Middle East & Turkey; may also be present in Lebanon, Syria & Iraq, but no specimens reported from there, so far.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, hiding in crevices or under objects in the day. Preys mainly on various available insects & arthropods. Elaborate mating "dance." Young hatch from eggs retained within female then crawl out her genital opening.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, w/ cardiotoxic & myotoxic factors, comparable in potency to the venom of A. crassicauda. Causes locally painful, reddened & slightly swollen area at sting site, but not reported to have caused human deaths.

Androctonus crassicauda

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Androctonus crassicauda gonneti [ NOTE: This is the second most wide-spread species in this typically Middle-Eastern, North African, & South Asian genus. ]

Common Names: Black Turkish fat-tailed scorpion, fat-tailed scorpion

Description

Moderately large dark fat-tailed scorpion, adults usually about 50 mm long (max. 73+ mm). Body heavy, dark brown (often nearly black), w/ 4 or more dorsal, longitudinal ridges w/ serrate crests on most segments of the post-abdomen, & numerous short, stiff, dark hairs & spines scattered over body & post-abdomen. Pedipalps (pincers) large, robust at base; generally fearsome-looking. Re-curved sting at tip of post-abdomen (telson).

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Habitat

Mainly found in margins of desert, arid, semi-arid sites w/ sandy surface soil, sometimes found in accumulated vegetation debris, or in rock crevices. This species is widespread in Turkey, & in several other Middle Eastern & North African countries. One subspecies, A. c. gonneti, apparently limited to Morocco.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, hide in crevices & under various objects during day, can climb most surfaces (all but very smooth glass) to surprising vertical heights (>20 ft.). Prey mainly on smaller insects & invertebrates, but occasionally kill & suck body juices out of small lizards (& rarely, very small mammals). Use sting at tip of post-abdomen to defend themselves & sometimes to kill large prey. Eggs hatch inside female & young (usually 7-30+) crawl out her genital opening.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, but usually includes cardiotoxic, & often also myotoxic factors. Effects of envenomation (sting) usually include immediate severe local pain, redness & swelling; plus delayed (from one to 24+ hours later) systemic effects which may involve heart malfunctions, remote internal bleeding & problems w/ vision & breathing. Human deaths reportedly most often due to respiratory arrest, heart failure, or shock.

Androctonus hoggardensis

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Fat-tailed desert scorpion

Description

Medium-sized, moderately-dark, fat-tailed scorpion, adults about 40-50 mm long. Body colors, pattern & physical appearance very similar to A. australis, but generally much lighter in color & markedly smaller. Body yellowish-brown to medium-brown, w/ yellowish-brown legs & post-abdomen. Tips of pincers & telson not very dark brown.

Habitat

Very similar to habitat of A. australis. Only reported from Algeria & Nigeria; but probably also occurs in adjacent areas of Chad, Mali, & Libya. For more detailed description of typical local habitat for a closely-related species, See Androctonus australis.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, hides in cracks & under various objects in daytime. Preys mainly on available insects & other arthropods. Has an elaborate mating "dance," & young hatch inside female & crawl out her genital opening. May use both pincers & sting in own defense & to catch prey.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but probably mainly neurotoxic, w/ cardiotoxic & myotoxic factors. Few stings of humans & no human fatalities confirmed to have been caused by this species.

Androctonus mauretanicus

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Moroccan fat-tailed scorpion, black scorpion

Description

Description

Look identical to typical "domesticated" European honey bees (microscopic measurement differences). Body about 1.5-2.5 cm long, dark-brown w/ yellow-brown hairs covering thorax, most of head & in bands across abdomen; wings clear & membranous. Social insects, work co-operatively in large colonies (often thousands of individuals) w/ a caste system. Large, dark compouind eyes, elongated tougue-like mouthparts, carry pollen stuck among hairs of hind legs.

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Habitat

When found "wild", these & other honey bees typically live in warmer to temperate climates, in large colonies (usually called hives; often built in various available somewhat "protected" cavities), w/ honey storage combs & brood chambers built of beeswax, w/ social castes.

Activity and Behavior

Duirnal, usually foraging & collecting nectar & pollen from available flowers, & various nest (hive) & brood maintenance. This subspecies is much more aggressive than typical "domesticated" (European/ Italian) subspecies, w/ >50% of workers in a colony attacking an intruder w/ slightest provocation; & will maintain attack for 1/4 mile or farther. This subspecies will forage during overcast & in light rain. Tend to "swarm" or abscond more than European subspecies does.

Venom Characteristics

Contains enzymes, peptides, histamine (causes local pain & vasodilation), & hyaluronidase (spreading factor). About 50-60% of venom's dry-weight is peptides (mainly melittin & mast-cell degranulating peptide). Peptides cause cell lysis, pain & inflammation; phospholipases (esp. A2) cause allergic reactions. This subspecies' venom is NOT more potent than European bees', but significantly more stings usually inflicted. Deaths usually due to anaphylactic shock.

Aspidelaps lubricus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Aspidelaps lubricus cowlesi, A. l. infuscatus, A. l. lubricus, Elaps lubricus, Natrix lubricus

Common Names: Angolan coral snake, Western coral snake, Cape coral snake, South African Coral Snake

Description

Small, relatively thick-bodied terrestrial Elapid snake, adults usually 30-50 cm long (max. 80 cm). Body color usually orange to coral-red, patterned dorsally w/ 20-47 black crossbands. First black band usually extends (like a chevron) onto the top of the head. Belly usually yellowish-white w/ the frist 2-3 dorsal black bands extending as complete ventral crossbars, too. Juveniles may have additional faint dark crossbands on belly farther toward tail.

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Habitat

Found mainly in dry, sandy, or rocky regions of semi-arid scrublands & desert fringes. Found in the Republic of South Africa (Cape Province), southern Angola, & Namibia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial. Relatively easily excited, never becomes tame in captivity. When disturbed or exposed, it rears up, spreads a narrow hood, & hisses in defense (may strike at intruder if further bothered). Oviparous w/ usually 3-11 eggs/ clutch observed. Preys mainly on available lizards, but also eats reptile eggs & small rodents.

Venom Characteristics

Not very well known. Venom mainly neurotoxic w/ possible mild cytotoxic factors. Few bites & envenomations of humans reported w/ limited, mainly localized minor swelling & pain. No human fatalities reported.

Aspidelaps scutatus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Aspidelaps scutatus bachrani, A. s. fulafulus, A. s. intermedius, A. s. scutatus, Cyrtophis scutatus

Common Names: Shield-nosed Snake, Eastern shield-nosed snake, Intermediate shield-nosed snake, Schildnasenkobra, Schildkobra

Description

Small, heavy-bodied terrestrial Elapid, adults usually 40-60 cm long (max. about 75 cm). Has a much enlarged "shield-like" rostral scale (on top of its snout) & 21 midbody dorsal scale rows. Body color usually pale gray-brown, salmon-pink, or orange-brown w/ a series of brown blotches over the back & tail. Head & forepart of body glossy black.

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Habitat

Found mainly in savanna & sandveld areas; & in arid sandy & stony regions. Found in Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, northeastern Republic of South Africa, & Zimbabwe.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal. Usually sluggish, but may be very active after rains. Very active burrower, often using man-made items, like partly buried plastic pipes as "burrows." May "play dead" if cornered, but usually hisses explosively & strikes repeatedly if molested. It will rear the front part of its body & flatten its neck when disturbed, but does not have a true hood like typical cobras. Oviparous w/ 4-11 eggs/ clutch observed. Eats lizards, small mammals & other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Venom reportedly primarily neurotoxic. Humans are occasionally bitten & envenomated. Reported symptoms have ranged from mild local swelling & pain to death (of small children) due to cardiac arrest. No known antivenom currently produced.

Astrotia stokesii

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Identification

Family: Hydrophiidae

Scientific Names: Astrotia schizopholis, Disteira stokesii, Hydrophis guentheri, H. granosa, H. guttata, H. schizopholis

Common Names: Stokes's sea snake

Description

Largest of the sea snakes, reaching a maximum length of about 6 feet (1.8 m). Very heavy-bodied, w/ colors varying from black through shades of grey to dull white. Indistinct pattern of blotches, reticulations or crossbands may be present. Has a raised ventral keel formed by its elongated & divided ventral scales.

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Habitat

Found only in marine waters (usually found at >10 m deep), mainly in coastal areas from western India & Sri Lanka west through the Gulf of Siam to the China Sea, western Malaysia, Indonesia, east to New Guinea & the northern & eastern coasts of Australia, southeastern Asian Sea (Pakistan to Australia), & the Philippine Islands. May also occur in coastal waters of additional nearby countries, or islands, but specimens not yet documented from them.

Activity and Behavior

Usually found in deep, open marine water, especially where there is turbidity or silting. Very agile swimmers. Females bear litters of about 12 live young each about 12 inches long. Probably both diurnal & nocturnal, but seldom observed at night. Prey mainly on various available fish.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, but not well studied.

Atheris acuminata

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atheris acuminatus, Atheris hispidus (in part)

Common Names: Bush viper

Description

For generalized description of a very closely-related species, See Atheris hispidus (some authors claim this may be a sub-species of A. hispidus).

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Habitat

Typically found in forests or forest margins. Reported only from western Uganda.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known, but probably mainly arboreal, mainly nocturnal, probably ovoviviparous (w/ a usual litter of <15 young), & probably mainly preys on available small mammals, lizards & frogs. For details about a closely-related species, See Atheris hispidus.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but probably mainly hemotoxic. Bites of humans extremely rare, & no documented serious human envenomations or fatalities, so far. No specific antivenom currently produced.

Atheris broadleyi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atheris squamigera

Common Names: Cameroon bush viper

Description

A medium-sized, "rough-scaled" true viper (adder) of varied colors & patterns. Very similar to "A. squamigera".

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Habitat

Found mainly in forest margins. Reported only from Cameroon (East Province).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly arboreal & usually nocturnal, but may bask in the sun occasionally, & sometimes hunts for small animal prey near or on the ground. See Atheris squamigera.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but mainly hemotoxic.

Atheris ceratophora

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atheris ceratophorus

Common Names: Usambara bush viper

Description

Medium-sized fairly slender, arboreal adder, adults usually 0.6 m long (max. <1.0 m), w/ 21-23 midbody dorsal scale rows. Body usually yellow-green or dark olive-green, mottled w/ dark-brown (all-black forms have been reported). Head very broad, triangular, w/ 3 horn-like scales above each eye. Most scales are strongly-keeled & their tips project away from the body, giving a "rough" appearance. Belly dirty-orange to nearly black, & may have black speckles.

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Habitat

Found mainly in bushes at forest edge & in forest glades. Limited to Tanzania (Usambara, Uluguru, Uzungwe Mountains).

Activity and Behavior

Arboreal (may climb to 20 ft. above ground), mainly nocturnal (maybe crepuscular) but often basks in the sun. Often forage for small mammal (rodent) prey on the ground. Ovoviviparous, typically bears 5-8 young/ litter, each about 6 inches long.

Venom Characteristics

Venom likely hemotoxic, but not well studied. Considered nonlethal to man. No known specific antivenom currently produced.

Atheris chlorechis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atheris chloroechis, A. squamiger chlorechis, A. polylepis, Echis chloroechis, Toxicoa chloroechis, Vipera chlorechis, V. chloroechis

Common Names: Western bush viper

Description

Medium-sized arboreal adder, adults usually 45-55 cm long (max. 70+ cm), w/ 25-36 midbody dorsal rows of keeled scales. Body usually uniform pale-green above, darkening a little on sides & toward tail. Belly paler green. Tail long, strongly prehensile. Young usually w/ tail tipped w/ sulphur-yellow.

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Habitat

Mainly found in green shrubs & foliage fairly near ground in west African rainforests. Limited to tropical & subtropical western African countries (mainly from Guinea eastward to Ghana).

Activity and Behavior

Strongly arboreal (within 1-2 m of ground), but rarely hunts small rodent prey at ground level. Mainly nocturnal or crepuscular (active at dusk & dawn), but may bask in sun. Ovoviviparous w/ usually 6-9 young/ litter.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but venom likely hemotoxic, although no record of human bites. No known specific antivenom currently produced.

Atheris desaixi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Ashe's bush viper, Mount Kenya bush viper

Description

Medium-sized fairly slender arboreal adder, adults usually 40-60 cm long, w/ 24-31 midbody rows of keeled dorsal scales. Body usually dark-brown or black w/ yellow posterior border. Some body scales have light or cream-colored edges or tips, producing a thin, irregular, light yellow zig-zag pattern along the snake's back. Belly usually light-yellow.

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Habitat

Generally found in evergreen forests & forest edges at about 1,600 m elevation. Reported only from Kenya.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known. Mainly arboreal, but often hunts small rodent prey at ground level. Mainly nocturnal, but often basks in sun. Ovoviviparous, w/ 13 young in oberved litter of a captured female. For similar details about a closely related species, See Atheris squamigera.

Venom Characteristics

Venom likely hemotoxic. Not considered lethal to humans. No known antivenom produced.

Atheris hirsuta

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atheris hirsutus

Common Names: Green bush viper

Description

Medium-sized, "rough-scaled" viper which is generally brown to olive-green occasionally w/ small amounts darker (& sometimes lighter) cross bands or speckled patterning. Similar & apparently closely related to A. squamigera (possibly a sub-species of that species).

Habitat

Usually found in forests & edges of forest clearings. Reported only from the Ivory Coast.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, but sometimes basks in sunshine. Mainly arboreal, but sometimes hunts small animals on the ground. Ovoviviparous (litter size not reported but probably <15 young). Mainly prey on available small mammals & lizards (maybe also frogs).

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but mainly hemotoxic.

Atheris hispida

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atheris hispidus, A. squamigera

Common Names: African hairy bush viper, Rough-scaled bush viper, Spiny bush viper

Description

Adults usually 0.5-0.7 m long. Background color may vary from uniform yellow through differing combinations of green, brown, or black; belly usually pale green. Scales heavily keeled & upturned, giving a very bristly appearance.

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Habitat

Generally found in forests, inland swamps, & reed & papyrus swamps adjacent to lakes & rivers. Found in the northeastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire - Lutunguru & Kivu Provinces), southwestern Uganda, western Kenya, & northwestern Tanzania.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal but sometimes basks in the sun. Capable of climbing reeds & stalks, often basking atop terminal leaves or flowers. Sometimes hunts small animal prey at ground level.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Venom most likely hemotoxic. Venom not likely fatal to humans except in very unusual circumstances.

Atheris katangensis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Katanga mountain bush viper

Description

Similar to other species of 'rough scaled" bush (or leaf) vipers. See Atheris squamiger.

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Habitat

Found in the southern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire - Katanga). Typically lives in rain forests, open woodlands bordering forests, & swamps.

Activity and Behavior

See Atheris squamiger.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic, but not well known.

Atheris nitschei

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atheris nitschei nitschei, A. n. rungweensis, A. woosnami

Common Names: Great Lakes bush viper, Black-and-green bush viper, Nitsche's bush viper

Description

Medium-sized arboreal adder, adults usually 40-70 cm long (max. 73+ cm). Body usually bright or olive green above w/ black markings; rarely nearly all black w/ lighter tail. Dorsal scales keeled & in 23-33 midbody rows. Belly usually yellowish or very pale green; distinctly lighter than dorsal surface. Irregular black markings on body & head produced by darker tips of some scales (may form a zig-zag pattern). Young usually rich, uniform chocolate-brown or gray-brown w/ bright yellow tail tip.

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Habitat

Found mainly above ground, in reeds & papyrus of lake margins or upland swamps, or up to 3 m above ground in elephant grass of humid valleys (usually at 1650-2800 m elevation). Sometimes found at ground level. May also be found in Malawi & Zambia, but specimens from there probably belong to the recently elevated species A. rungweensis (formerly a subspecies of A. nitschei).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly arboreal & usually nocturnal, sometimes basks in the sun & hunts on the ground at night. Less excitable than most other Bush Vipers, but often aggressive if disturbed even slightly. Prey mainly on small mammals, lizards (also frogs). Ovoviviparous, w/ usually 5-13 young/ litter. Young may use caudal-luring to catch prey. For behavior of a closely-related sp., See Atheris squamiger.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but venom is likely hemotoxic. Not considered lethal to humans. Bites of humans rare, & no serious human envenomations or deaths reported. No known antivenom currently produced.

Atheris rungweensis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atheris nitschei rungweensis

Common Names: Rungwe tree viper, Rungwe bush viper, green-&-yellow bush viper

Description

Medium-sized arboreal adder, adults usually 40-70 cm long (max. 73+ cm). Body usually light to bright green above, w/ irregular black patterns (maybe zig-zags) due to black-tipped, keeled dorsal scales (w/ 23-33 midbody rows). Belly lighter, usually greenish-yellow, young usually solid brownish w/ bright yellow tail tip.

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Habitat

Found mainly 2-4 m above ground in reeds, grass & bamboo of upland papyrus & phragmites swamps, riverine elephant grass, bamboo, & montane forest up to 2,800 m elevation. May also occur in suitable habitats in northwestern Mozambique, but no specimens confirmed from there, so far.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal (but often basks in sun) & mainly arboreal (but often hunts on the ground at night). Less excitable than many other bush vipers, but can be aggressive when disturbed. Prey mainly on available frogs, less often on small mammals, &/or lizards. Ovoviviparous, w/ probably 5-13 young/ litter. Young may practice "caudal luring" of prey.

Venom Characteristics

Not much studied, but probably mainly hemotoxic. Bites of humans rare, no serious human envenomations or fatalities reported, so far. Not considered lethal to humans, but no specific antivenom currently produced.

Atheris squamigera

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atheris anisolepis, A. burtoni, A. laeviceps, A. lucani, A. polylepis, A. proximus, A. squamiger, A. s. anisolepis, A. s. squamigera, A. s. robustus, Echis squamigera, Poecilostolus burtonii, Toxicoa squamigera

Common Names: African bush viper, Rough-scaled bush viper, Leaf Viper, Rankschuppige Buschviper

Description

Description

Description

One of biggest burrowing asps, adults avg. 30-80 cm long (max. 1.1 m), big individuals remarkably stout. Dorsal scales smooth & in 25-37 midbody rows. Body shiny black, purplish-black, deep grey, or very dark brown body (rarely w/ white tail tip), may be irridescent gray below w/ very short, broad head.

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Identification

Family: Hexathelidae

Scientific Names: Atrax spp. [ Note: There are 3 currently named species in this genus, but only this one is of significant human health concern.]

Common Names: Sydney Funnel-Web Spider, Australian Funnel-Web Spider, Australian black trapdoor spider

Description

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atropos mexicanus, Atropoides nummifer (in part), A. n. mexicana, Bothriechis nummifera (in part), B. n. var. notata, Bothriopsis affinis, B. mammifera, B. mexicanus, Bothrops mexicanus, B. nummifera, B. nummifer nummifer, Lachesis nummifer, Porthidium nummifer mexicanum, Teleuraspis nummifer, Thanatophis nummifer, Thanatos nummifer, Trigonocephalus nummifer, Trimeresurus nummifer, T. n. nummifer

Common Names: Central American jumping pitviper, mano de piedro, timbo, chehpat, jumping tommygoff, patoca, toboba, toboba chinga, brazo de piedra, chinchintor, dormilon, dormilona, mococh, otooy, tamaga, tamagas, timbo, xalpate, tunco, bajequilla, bolpach, mano de metate, cabeza de sapo, saltadora, sok nok, najak tzajin, nauyaca, pawangu tsany, ochcan

Description

Exceedingly stout, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 50-70 cm long (max. 90+ cm). Body gray-brown to dark brown (rarely - background color yellow, cream, pale gray, or even reddish), w/ darker brown rhomboidal blotches along dorsal midline, sometimes form a zigzag pattern. Dark postocular stripe, 23-27 midbody dorsal scale rows; high, tubercular-keeled dorsal scales. Belly may be immaculate to heavily blotched w/ brown. Moveable front fangs relatively short.

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Habitat

Found mainly in mesic forest, including tropical rainforest, moist, & wet forest; & lower cloud forest; sometimes in pine savannas & rocky outcroppings (includes corozo, coffee, pine & cloud forest life areas). Found at 40-1,600 m elevation from southeastern Mexico to central Panama.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, mainly nocturnal, but sometimes basks in sun. Typically slow-moving & not aggressive by day. Can only strike for about 1/2 of its body length (despite its common names). This species often holds onto prey after striking (often very tenaceously). When threatened, often holds mouth very wide open as a defensive display.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic, w/ possible cytotoxic factors. Venom reportedly not as potent as that of other pitvipers in the same areas (e.g., Bothrops asper). Main envenomation symptoms usually local pain & swelling. Although a number of human envenomations by this species occur each year, human fatalities reported to have been due to this species, or closely-related species, have not been well documented.

Atropoides nummifer

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atropos nummifer, Atropoides numifer mexicanus, A. n. nummifer, A. n. occiduus, Bothriechis nummifer notata, Bothrops nummifer, B. n. affinis, B. n. occiduus, Porthidium nummifer, P. n. mexicanum, P. n. occiduum

Common Names: Jumping pit viper

Description

A stocky, terrestrial pit viper varying from grey to brown or beige, patterned with angulated blotches which meet along the middle of tis back. The head is not patterned except for a dark line angled back and downward from each eye. Adults average 18-24 inches, but may reach 30 inches in length.

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Habitat

Found in rain forests, forested hills, and adjacent cleared areas or plantations in Mexico and Central America.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, but sometimes bask in the sun. Usually hide in or under old logs, plies of leaves or debris and hunt in those places for their typical prey of small mammals, lizards or frogs. They may strike at intruders with such force that they throw their whole body off the ground. When very frightened, they sometimes will flail about trying to strike wildly and quickly, turning to keep the threat in sight. Usually a female will bear 5-6 live young per litter.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic.

Atropoides occiduus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atropoides nummifer (in part), Bothriechis nummifera (in part), Bothriopsis affinis (in part), Bothrops affinis, Bothrops nummifer nummifer, B. n. occiduus, Porthidium nummifer occiduum, Trimeresurus nummifer (in part), T. n. nummifer (in part)

Common Names: Guatemalan jumping pitviper, mano de piedra, cantil sapo, chinchintor, sulcuat

Description

Small to medium-sized, very stout-bodied, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 35-60 cm long (max. 79.5 cm). Body usually pale brown to burgandy-brown (rarely pinkish or purplish) w/ dark brown rhomboidal dorsal blotches, usually joined at vertebral line forming a zigzag pattern (at least on posterior half). Wide, dark brown postocular stripe. Middorsal scales strongly keeled, 21-27 midbody dorsal scale rows, belly usually lighter, often w/ dark spots or blotches, especially along sides.

Habitat

Mainly found in subtropical wet forest along the Pacific versant from southeastern Chiapas, Mexico to western El Salvador; but also in seasonally dry pine-oak forest near Guatemala City. Found mainly at medium to higher elevations (1,000-1,600 m).

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, mainly nocturnal, but sometimes basks in sun. Sluggish, non-aggressive during the day. Can only strike for about 1/2 its body length (does not actually "jump" or launch itself). May open mouth very wide in a defensive display (usually while coiled) if molested. Sometimes holds onto prey after striking it. Ovoviviparous, preys mainly on small mammals, birds (sometimes also lizards & frogs).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but probably mainly hemotoxic (w/ possible cytotoxic factors). Reportedly similar to A. mexicanus in having relatively less potent venom than other pitvipers found in the same areas (e.g., B. asper). Has envenomated humans, but only recently named, and may have been confused w/ similar species previously. No definitely documented human fatalities have been caused by this species so far.

Atropoides olmec

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops olmec, Porthidium olmec

Common Names: Olmecan pit viper

Description

Adult length usually 0.5 to 0.8 meters; an extremely stout-bodied snake. Background color usually reddish, reddish-gray, or orangish-tan dorsally, shading to pink or pinkish-gray laterally; the back usually has a series of rhomboid to diamond-shaped dark blotches which meet along its back.

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Habitat

Most common in wetter forested areas at elevations of 500 to 1,500 meters. Found in Mexico (southern Veracruz, Sierra de los Tuxtlas).

Activity and Behavior

Reportedly shy, tending to lower and hide the head upon initial contact. Can strike with such force that its whole body is launched off the ground. Additional biologic and behavioral details are similar to those of "A. nummifer".

Venom Characteristics

Primarily hemotoxic. No known antivenom produced.

Atropoides picadoi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops picadoi, Porthidium picadoi, Trimeresurus nummifer picadoi

Common Names: Picado's pit viper

Description

Size and coloration very similar to "A. nummifer".

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Habitat

See Atropoides nummifer

Activity and Behavior

See Atropoides nummifer

Venom Characteristics

Hemotoxic.

Austrelaps labialis

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Alecto labialis, Austrelaps superbus (in part), Denisonia superba [Some suthorities consider this to be a junior synonym of A. superbus.]

Common Names: Pygmy Copperhead

Description

Small, cylindrical, smooth-scaled Elapid, adults seldonm more than about 80 cm long. Body medium to dark brown above, lighter brown to grayish-brown belly, usually 17 midbody dorsal scale rows, head somewhat pointed. Looks very similar to A. superbus, but quite a bit smaller.

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Habitat

Found in marshes, grasslands, & fairly open woodlands; most often found near water; limited to South Australia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, mainly diurnal butalso active after dark in warmer months. Behavior & activity very similar to A. superbus. Ovoviviparous, litter size not reported. Preys mainly on frogs, lizards & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Not well studied, but probably mainly neurotoxic. Reports of human envenomations (and even some deaths) are not well documented, but the toxicity of venom of related species implies these could be a serious health risk to humans.

Austrelaps ramsayi

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Austrelaps superbus, Denisonia superba, Hoplocephalus brankysi, H. bransbyi, H. ramsayi [This species is considered by some authorities to be a subspecies or a junior synonym of A. superbus.]

Common Names: Highlands copperhead, Ramsay's copperhead

Description

Medium-sized cylindrical, smooth-scaled Elapid, adults usually about 100 cm long. Body usually dark grayish-brown above, lighter below. Head somewhat pointed. Similar in general physical appearance to A. superbus.

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Habitat

Found in marshes, woodlands, & grasslands; usually at higher elevations in southern & southeastern Australia (limited to New South Wales & Victoria).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & diurnal, but sometimes active after dusk. Bask in the sun, usually found near water & seem to be semi-aquatic in marshy habitats. Ovoviviparous, 3-32 young per litter. Usually not aggressive unless disturbed, but will defend themselves after only limited provocation, & may pose a health threat due to their highly toxic venom. Very similar in overall behavior to A. superbus.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but mainly neurotoxic, w/ possibly some cytotoxic or myotoxic factors, too. Bites & serious envenomations have been reported, but reports of human fatalities not well documented.

Austrelaps spp.

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names:

Description

Habitat

Activity and Behavior

Venom Characteristics

Austrelaps superbus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Alecto schmidti, Hoplocephalus superbus, Notechis superbus

Common Names: Lowlands Copperhead, Copperhead snake

Description

Medium to large-sized Elapid snake, adults usually 1.0-1.4 m long (max. about 1.7 m). Body cylindrical, dorsal scales smooth; body usually dark brownish above w/ lighter copper-colored sides & lowest lateral scale row yellowish); belly much paler yellowish-brown to grayish-brown. Head slightly pointed, chin usually very pale (often whitish). Can flatten its neck & front part of body (hood-like) as a threat if disturbed.

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Habitat

Found only in marshes, woodlands & grasslands in cool, temperate areas. Limited to southeastern Australia (New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria) & Tasmania.

Activity and Behavior

Diurnal & nocturnal, basks in the sun, often found near water; mainly terrestrial, but apparently semi-aquatic in marshy habitats. Usually not aggressive unless cornered or molested, then defends itself aggressively. Ovoviviparous, 9-45 young per litter. Preys mainly on frogs & toads, lizards, small mammals & sometimes birds.

Venom Characteristics

Not well studied, but probably mostly neurotoxic (like other Elapids), & may also have cytotoxic or myotoxic factors, too.

Azemiops feae

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Fea’s Viper, Fea-Viper

Description

Maximum length about 1.0 m; moderately slender snake. Very primative true viper that looks more like a Colubrid snake. Background color bluish black or black, patterned w/ a few widely-spaced, thin red-orange lateral bands that sometimes meet middorsally; 17 midbody dorsal scale rows, dorsal scales smooth. Belly gray. Head pale red-orange, patterned w/ two darker stripes, & somewhat flattened.

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Habitat

Found in mountainous areas from 600-2,000 m elevation. Reported distribution includes northern Burma, southeastern Tibet, China (Jiangxi & Sichuan provinces), & northern Tonkin.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, very rare, oviparous, probably usually prey on small mammals. Occur only at rather high elevations. Little is known about their biology.

Venom Characteristics

Little information available. Probably hemotoxic. Few bites reported. Reported symptoms include local pain and swelling only. No known antivenom produced.

Balanophis ceylonensis

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Identification

Family: Colubridae

Scientific Names: Amphiesma ceylonensis, Rhabdophis ceylonensis, Tropidonotus ceylonensis, T. chrysargus var. ceylonensis

Common Names: Sri Lanken keelback, Blossom krait

Description

Adult length usually 0.3 to 0.4 meters; moderately elongated & cylindrical. Background color olive-brown or grayish blue; head dull orange or brownish. Belly light bluish gray. Series of indistinct black cross bars with light orange or brown spots on back.

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Habitat

Mainly confined to forests & rain forests; usually found in decaying wet vegetation. Occurs at elevations from 150 to 1,500 m above sea level.

Activity and Behavior

Slow-moving, inoffensive, and terrestrial; spends most of day buried under decaying vegetation. When excited, expands & flattens body (especially neck region), exhibiting scarlet interstitial skin.

Venom Characteristics

Little data available. Venom likely hemotoxic. Bites may cause pain, swelling, redness, and headache. People living near Sinharajha rain forest fear this snake as much as they fear a viper. No known antivenom produced.

Bitis arietans

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bitis arietans arietans, B. a. somalica, B. lachesis, Echidna arietans, Vipera arietans

Common Names: Puff adder, Gemeine Puffotter

Description

Adults usually 60-100 cm long (max. 190 cm); thick, heavy body, color varies from bright yellow to light yellow, yellow-brown, orange-brown, light brown, or gray, usually patterned w/ darker chevrons. Belly yellowish-white to gray w/ black blotches. Head flat, much wider than neck; scales small, keeled, overlapping. Some males from highlands of eastern Africa brightly colored & patterned.

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Habitat

Most widely distributed venomous snake in Africa; encountered almost anywhere, at both low & high elevations, except for rain forests & extreme desert conditions. Found mainly in savannah or open grassland including areas w/ scattered scrubby bushes, from sea level to 3,500 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Both diurnal & nocturnal, often basks in early morning or late afternoon; terrestrial but may climb sturdy bushes to bask. Usually sluggish; relies on camouflage to escape detection. Bad-tempered & excitable; when disturbed, makes long deep hissing noise. May move rapidly, coil into "S-shape" & strike suddenly & swiftly, but does not hold on. Eats small rodents, birds, amphibians & sometimes other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Many serious bites reported annually; only a small portion are fatal. Venom has potent cytotoxin, attacking tissue & blood cells. Symptoms often include extreme pain w/ swelling & large blisters in region of the bite.

Bitis atropos

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bitis atropos atropos, B. a. unicolor, Coluber atropos, Echidna atropos

Common Names: Mountain adder, Berg adder, Bergotter

Description

Small stout adder, adults average 30-40 cm. long (max. 60 cm); usually grayish-olive to dark-brown, w/ 2 rows of triangular black dorsal markings & lateral rows of square markings, rarely whole body drab brown. Head w/ dark arrow-shaped mark on top & 2 pale streaks along each side. Chin & throat pinkish or yellow, belly off-white, sometimes grey or black.

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Habitat

Different populations adapted to two diverse habitats: montane grasslands, even above the snowline, & in valleys near sea level. Usually found where it is cool & fairly wet for at least a large part of the year.

Activity and Behavior

Diurnal; seeks shelter in shallow rock crevices & beneath grass clumps. Hiss loudly & strike violently if approached; quick to strike. Mainly prey on rodents, birds, lizards, amphibians, & occasionally other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Venom primarily neurotoxic, affecting eyes & other sensory functions. Eyes cannot focus, eyelids droop, & sense of taste & smell lost. Not known to cause respiratory distress. Pain & swelling at bite site common.

Bitis caudalis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Vipera caudalis

Common Names: Horned adder, Gehornte Puffotter

Description

A short, stubby snake, adults average 30-40 cm long (max. 51.5 cm). Color extremely variable, in geographical areas, may be dark-reddish to grayish-brown to very light gray, buff, or pinkish. Usually a single, prominent horn above each eye, 21-31 midbody dorsal scale rows, & dorsal scales strongly keeled. Belly plain white or cream, may be tinged orange along its margins.

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Habitat

Usually found in rocky sparsely-vegetated brushland in semi-arid, or sandy desert areas. Common in arid regions of southwestern Africa, eastward through the Kalahari desert of Botswana to southwestern Zimbabwe, & north to southern Angola.

Activity and Behavior

May lay coiled up, half buried in sand; when disturbed, may hiss fiercely & strike violently. Nocturnal, usually buries all but its head & eyes in the sand. Females bear 4-19 live young, each about 13.5 cm long, in late summer (Feb.-Mar.). Eat mainly lizards, & occasionally amphibians or rodents.

Venom Characteristics

Very few bites & no human fatalities recorded. Venom primarily cytotoxic, w/ local swelling & intense pain & vomiting, little or no necrosis. Venom of this species is mildly anticoagulent & possibly the least potent of any species in this genus.

Bitis cornuta

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bitis cornuta albanica, B. c. cornuta, Cerastes cornuta, Cerastes lophophrys, Clotho cornuta, Cobra cornuta, Vipera cornuta, V. lophophris, V. lophophrys

Common Names: Many-horned adder, Hornsman, Buschelbrauenotter

Description

Small, stocky, terrestrial, grey & black adder, adults average 30-37.5 cm long (max. 50 cm); generally gray or reddish-brown; belly white to dirty-brownish w/ dark speckles. Head w/ symmetrical dark markings which may fuse to form arrowhead shape & a dark oblique streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Typically a series of doubled, pale-edged angular spots down its back. Usually have a tuft of horns above each eye.

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Habitat

FOund mainly in mountains or sandy plains, particularly in rocky, arid areas.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, shelters in rock cracks or rodent burrows in rocky areas; may bury itself in loose sand. Active at dusk & early morning. When frightened or disturbed, will hiss loudly & strike w/ so much force that most of body leaves ground. Strikes at the least provocation. Ambushes small rodents, lizards & birds for food. About 5-12 live young (13-16 cm long)/ litter, usually born in Jan.-Apr.

Venom Characteristics

Venom primarily cytotoxic. Bites may cause pain, local swelling, & local necrosis. Few known bites of humans; no human fatalities recorded.

Bitis gabonica

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bitis gabonica gabonica, B. g. rhinoceros, B. rhinoceros, Cerastes nasicornis, Chlotho rhinoceros, Echidna gabonicus, E. rhinoceros, Urobelus gabonicus, Vipera rhinoceros

Common Names: Gaboon viper, Gaboon adder, Gabunviper

Description

Description

Large, stout, w/ a narrow flat triangular head w/ small keeled scales. Adults average 60-90 cm long (max. 150 cm), 31-43 midbody scale rows. Background color varies; patterned w/ various geometric shapes in pale blue, red, lemon yellow, green, purple, white, & jet black. Head blue or green w/ distinctive black arrow mark, belly dirty-white to dull green w/ lots of black & grey blotches.

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Habitat

Found mainly in rain forests, swamps, marshes, & floodplains; river, stream, & lake shores. Seldom goes into woodlands. Well camouflaged among fallen leaves of forest floor. Sometimes tolerated by Kenyan villagers as it resides in roofs of their huts.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, partially aquatic, climbs well; often basks in shrubs & trees. Usually lethargic & slow to strike even in self-defense. Makes loud hissing noise if provoked, but usually is reluctant to strike.

Venom Characteristics

Few bites of humans recorded; however, venom highly cytotoxic. May cause massive swelling & tissue necrosis. Tissue necrosis resulting in amputation has been reported.

Bitis parviocula

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Ethiopian viper, Ethiopian mountain adder

Description

Fairly big (up to 75.2 cm long), stout viper w/ long, flat, triangular head covered in small strongly keeled scales. Big dark eyes w/ vertical pupils set well forward. Has 37-39 midbody scale rows, thin neck, keeled scales. Body dark brown w/ a row of black hexagons or diamonds along spine, sometimes w/ paler crossbands, black triangular spots w/ white centers along flanks, belly greeny-grey, clear or dark speckled; chin & throat white. Head brown w/ dark triangle between eyes.

Habitat

Known only from open forest settings or grasslands at 2,000-3,000 m elevation in Ethiopia. Found near human habitations.

Activity and Behavior

Not very well know. Probably nocturnal, mainly terrestrial but may climb. Probably ambushes its prey, which are most likely to be small mammals. For more generalized habit details for a closely-related species, See Bitis arietans.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Probably similar to its most closely related species the puff adder, & the rhinoceros viper. For those details, See Bitis arietans.

Bitis peringueyi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Vipera peringueyi

Common Names: Peringuey’s adder, Dwarf puff adder, Zwergpuffotter, Namibviper

Description

Very small orange snake w/ no horns & eyes located on top of its head. Adult average 22.5-25 cm long (max. 32.5 cm), 23-31 middorsal scale rows, back sandy-grey to pale buff w/ 3 longitudinal ill-defined rows of dark spots. Background color generally gray, beige, or yellowish; patterned w/ reddish brown, brown, and/or black spots. Scales strongly keeled, tip of tail black.

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Habitat

Confined to dry, sandy coastal areas, particularly sparsely-vegetated wind-blown dunes. The only adder that inhabits the wind-blown sands of the true Namib Desert. Found from Rotkuppe in southern Namibia north to Porto Alexandre in Angola.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal; spends day mostly buried in sand w/ top of head, eyes, & tip of tail exposed. Eats mainly sand lizards, sometimes barking geckoes, & gets all its water either from its prey or from droplets of occasional coastal fogs that condense on its flattened body. Females bear 4-10 live young (each 11.5-13.5 cm long)/ litter, in Autumn (Dec.-Apr.). Crawls across sand w/ typical serpentine movements.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Venom probably mainly a weak cytotoxin, causing pain & local swelling; not likely to be lethal to humans. No known antivenom currently produced.

Bitis rubida

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bitis caudalis, B. cornuta albanica, B. c. cornuta, B. c. inornata, B. cornuta-inornata complex, B. inornata, B. inornata complex

Common Names: Red adder

Description

Almost identical in size, color & patterning to the Plain Mountain Adder; except that the body color & especially the pattern markings are usually distinctly more reddish. See Bitis inornata.

Habitat

Restricted to the upper slopes & summit of the Cedarberg, western Cape Province, Republic of South Africa. See Bitis inornata.

Activity and Behavior

Probably nearly identical in activity & habits to the Plain Mountain Adder. See Bitis inornata.

Venom Characteristics

Nothing reported for this species. Most likely cytotoxic, w/ local swelling & pain at the bite site. For generalized venom information for closely related species, See Bitis arietans.

Bitis schneideri

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bitis caudalis paucisquamata, B. paucisquamata

Common Names: Namaqua dwarf adder, Schneider's adder, Namaqua puff adder

Description

Smallest adder known w/ adults averaging 20-25 cm long (max. 27.6 cm). Strongly-keeled dorsal scales in 21-27 midbody rows, eyes on top of head, w/ small raised ridge above (sometimes bear minute "horns"). Background color grey to brownish-grey; patterned w/ 3 rows of black or brown blotches w/ light centers. Belly dirty-yellow, speckled w/ black. Tip of tail often dark.

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Habitat

Found only in semi-stable, vegetated coastal sand dunes in Namibia (the southern regions of the Namib Desert, from Luderitz Bay to Little Namaqualand), & in adjacent areas of the Republic of South Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, most active in early evening & night, but early morning, too. Often basks in the sun. Eats mainly lizards (skinks, lacertids & geckoes), but occasionally also small mammals & amphibians. Sidewinds very well, usually buries itself in sand & sometimes uses the black tip of its tail to attract potential prey.

Venom Characteristics

Venom contains primarily weak cytotoxin, causing pain & local swelling; unlikely to be lethal to humans. Very few bites of humans recorded, causing slight swelling & discoloration at the bite site. No known specific antivenom currently produced.

Bitis worthingtoni

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Kenya horned viper

Description

Small, stout, greyish, average 20-35 cm long (max. 50 cm). Broad, flat, triangular head w/ small, overlapping strongly-keeled scales, & arrow pattern on top; small eyes w/ vertical pupils, set far forward, brow above each eye w/ a single horn. Body dark-brown or olive w/ 2 lighter undulating lines along each flank; scales rough, heavily-keeled, w/ 27-29 (rarely 31) midbody rows. Belly off-white mottled & stippled w/ black, tail yellow below.

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Habitat

Restricted to scrub bush in broken rocky areas, generally at elevations above 1,500 m, along the high central rift valley, in southwestern Kenya.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, slow-moving, but can strike quickly. Probably mainly nocturnal or crepuscular, sometimes active in daytime. Main natural prey uncertain, but captive specimens feed readily on rodents or lizards which it captures by ambush from a covered position. Bears live young (7-12)/ litter, usually born in Mar.-Apr.

Venom Characteristics

Venom likely mildly cytotoxic. No known antivenom produced currently. One case report of moderate pain & mild swelling at the bite site of a human victim.

Bitis xeropaga

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Desert mountain adder

Description

Description

Large snake (up to 3 m on Guam), w/ very long tail, slender, laterally compressed body, & enlarged vertebral scales. Head large w/ big, bulbous eyes & relatively large, fixed rear fangs. May be brown, yellow, pink or barred.

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Habitat

Typically found in lowland woods & coastal forests. Native to Australia (New South Wales, North Territory, Queensland, West Australia), Indonesia, New Guinea, & the Solomon Islands. Has been recently introduced into Guam & the Caroline Islands.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, arborial, rests in leaf clumps, tree hollows etc., during the day. Feeds on birds, rodents or lizards. Tends to flatten its neck laterally when threatened. Has driven many bird species extinct in places where it has been itnroduced but has no natural predators. Enters homes, sometimes bites people. Has caused significant power outages on Guam.

Venom Characteristics

Nature & action of venom not well studied. Effects in bitten small mammal pets & human children have included: drooping eyelids, lowered muscle tone near bite, poor coordination, depressed heart rate, respiratory distress, tissue swelling & discoloration significant distances from bite. Rapidly repeated bites by threatened snakes are common. Reported fatalities not well documented & may have been by misidentified kraits (Bungarus spp).

Bothriechis aurifer

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops aurifer, B. aurifer, B. nigroviridis aurifer, Lachesis aurifer, Thamnocenchris aurifer

Common Names: Engl.: Yellow-blotched palm pit viper, Guat.: cantil loro, cantil verde, cotorra, gushnayera, ic bolay, raxcaj, tamagas verde, vibora del arbol, vibora verde, yaaxcan, Mex.: nauyaca, manchada, nauyaca verdinegra; Ger.: Guatemala-Lanzenotter, Gelbeflecte Lanzenotter

Description

Relatively slender, green, prehensile-tailed pit viper, adults usually up to 70 cm long (max. about 1 m); 18-21 midbody dorsal scale rows; usually yellowish-green w/ dorsal black-bordered yellow blotches, often w/ a broken black mid-dorsal stripe; belly paler. Top of the head usually has dark blotches & a dark post-ocular stripe from each eye to back of the head.

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Habitat

Found most commonly in lower montane rainforest (cloud forest) at 1,200-2,300 m elevation (very rarely, at much lower elevations). It may enter subtropical wet forest (pine-oak forest) along mesic ravines. Found in Mexico (Chiapas) & Guatemala. In Guatemala, it is found in regions of Sierra de las Minas & Sierra de Chuacus.

Activity and Behavior

Diurnal. Usually arboreal, but may be encountered at ground level or on low vegetation. Usually not aggressive & remain quietly coiled in vegetation, but will strike if brushed against or touched. Ovoviviparous w/ usually 5-8 young/ litter. Prey mainly on tree frogs, lizards & sometimes on available small rodents or birds.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hematoxic, has caused human deaths.

Bothriechis bicolor

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothriechis ornatus, Bothrops bicolor, B. bernoulli, B. ornatus

Common Names: Engl.: Guatemalan palm pit viper, Guat.: cantil lora, cotorra, gushnayera, huisnayera, tamagas verde, vibora romana, vibora verde, Mex.: nauyaca bicolor, nauyaca verde, Ger.: Zweifarbige Lanzenotter

Description

Small to medium-sized, relatively slender, green, prehensile-tailed pitviper, adults usually 60-70 cm long (max. 100 cm). Usually green to bluish-green w/ no distinctive pattern, head lacks a postocular dark stripe, belly usually paler, yellowish-green, 21 midbody dorsal scale rows.

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Habitat

Most common in lower montane wet forest/moist forest at 500-2,000 m elevation. Occupies moderate & intermediate elevations, mainly along the Pacific versant of the southern Volcanic Cordillera of Guatemala from the Vulcan de Agua to southeastern Chiapas, Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Arboreal, mainly nocturnal. Usually not aggressive & remains quietly coiled in vegetation, but will strike if brushed against or touched. Ovoviviparous w/ small number of young (usually <8) per litter. Preys mainly on small mammals, amphibians, & sometimes available birds.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Humans have reportedly occasionally been bitten by this species. It has not been reported to cause human fatalities, but may have that potential (it is rarely encountered by people).

Bothriechis lateralis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops lateralis, Lachesis lateralis

Common Names: Engl. - Side-striped palm-pitviper, Coffee palm viper; CostaRica & Panama - lora, toboba; Nicaragua - Chocoya, lora

Description

Medium-sized, fairly slender arboreal palm pitviper, adults usually 0.5-1.0 m long; w/ a prehensile tail & 21-23 midbody dorsal scale rows. Background color usually yellowish-green to bluish-green, usually w/ dorsolateral bicolored (yellow & black) vertical bars. Adults usually lack a dark postocular stripe. Belly usually very light green to whitish.

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Habitat

Most commonly found coiled in vegetation over or near watercourses; reported from 850 to 2,000 m elevation. Limited to Costa Rica, Nicaragua & Panama.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, mainly arboreal; usually not aggressive & remain quietly coiled in vegetation, but will strike if brushed against or touched. Ovoviviparous w/ 6-17 young in litters reported for captured specimens. Preys mainly on small rodents, frogs, birds, & even (rarely) bats.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic w/ strong proteolytic factors. Sometimes bites & envenomates humans, but typical symptoms usually limited to localized pain, swelling, redness, & occasionally dizziness, headache, photosensitivity, & difficulty breathing. Rare reports of human fatalities due to bites by this species have not yet been confirmed.

Bothriechis marchi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops marchi, B. nigroviridis marchi

Common Names: Engl. - March’s palm pit viper, Honduran palm viper; Honduras - tamaga verde; Nicaragua - chocoya, lora, vibora de las palmas

Description

Medium-sized, moderately slender, w/ prehensile tail, adults usually 0.5-1.0 m long. Body color usually yellowish-green to bluish-green, usually without any distinct patterning; some specimens may have indistinct bluish or yellowish-green mottling dorsally, belly paler green or yellow-green. Has 19-21 midbody dorsal scale rows.

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Habitat

Found mainly in rainforests & wet forests at low, moderate, & intermediate elevations of the Atlantic-drained slopes of Honduras (mainly at 500-1,500 m), including the Sierra de Espiritu Santo (probably also occur in southeastern Guatemala & northeastern Nicaragua).

Activity and Behavior

Arboreal; usually encountered coiled in trees or bushes. Mainly nocturnal. Usually nonaggressive, but may strike if brushed against or touched. Ovoviviparous w/ 6-13 young/ litter observed for captured females. Eats mainly available small mammals, lizards & birds.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, probably mainly hemotoxic. Rarely reported to bite humans & no human fatalities documented from bites by this species, so far.

Bothriechis nigroviridis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops marchi, B. nigroviridis, B. n. nigroviridis, B. rowleyi, Trimeresusus nigroviridis

Common Names: Engl. - Black-speckled palm-pitviper; Costa Rica - lora, sese, toboba de arbol, vibora de arbol

Description

Medium-sized, arboreal prehensile-tailed pitviper, adults usually <60 cm long (max. 93 cm); 17-21 midbody dorsal scale rows; body usually emerald-green to yellowish-green, strongly mottled w/ black; a distinct black postocular line from the eye to the corner of the mouth. Belly yellowish-green lightly mottled w/ black. Juveniles have black tail tip.

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Habitat

Found mainly in lower montane wet forest, cloud forest, & high montane forest; most common in undisturbed habitats. Found at 1,100-2,400 m elevation or higher. Limited to both slopes of the central cordillera of Costa Rica & western Panama.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, mainly arboreal; usually not aggressive & remains quietly coiled in vegetation, but will strike if disturbed. Ovoviviparous w/ usually 4-8 young/ litter. Preys mainly on small mammals, & sometimes frogs or birds.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic, w/ possible cytotoxic & neurotoxic factors. Has been implicated in human fatalities; envenomation reportedly results in intense pain, nausea, & asphyxia. Currently no specific antivenoms to this species.

Bothriechis rowleyi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops rowleyi, B. nigroviridis macdougalli

Common Names: Engl. - Mexican palm-pitviper, Rowley’s palm-pitviper; Local names - Nauyaca de cola azul, vibora de arbol, vibora verde

Description

Small to medium-sized, moderately slender, arboreal pitviper, w/ a prehensile tail, adults usually 50-100 cm long, & w/ 19-21 midbody dorsal scale rows. Body background color usually emerald green scales w/ bluish skin; frequently w/ bluish or yellow & black blotches. The head has no dark postocular stripe.

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Habitat

Found mainly in cloud forest & mesic revines in pine-oak forest at 1,060-1,830 m elevation. Limited to Mexico (southeastern Oaxaca, northwestern Chiapas).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly arboreal & diurnal. Usually not aggressive & remains quietly coiled in vegetation, but will strike if disturbed. Ovoviviparous w/ reportedly 6-8 young/ litter. Prey mainly on arboreal frogs & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but reportedly considered a dangerous snake by local inhabitants. Venoms is mainly hemotoxic, but may also contain neurotoxic components. No specific antivenom to this species currently produced.

Bothriechis schlegelii

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothriechis supraciliaris, Bothrops nigroadspersus, B. schlegelii, B. supraciliaris, Lachesis nitidus, L. schlegelii, Thanatophis torvus, Trigonocephalus schlegelii, Trimeresurus schlegelii

Common Names: Eyelash palm-pitviper, Green Tommygoff, chaj bolay, vibora del arbol

Description

Description

Slender, prehensile tailed pitviper, adults usually <70 cm long (max. 123 cm); body pale green to bluish-green, head green & speckled with black, tan or brown; 23-35 midbody scale rows; body sometimes w/ variable (usually paired) blotches, always with a longitudinal thin yellowish line along each side where the ventral & dorsal scales meet; belly yellow w/ green tinge, tail pinkish (bordered by yellow) near tip.

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Habitat

Found mainly in lowland rainforest, especially near waterways, at elevations up to 1,000 m. in Amazon or Atlantic coastal drainage of nine different South American countries; mainly Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, French Guiana, & Peru.

Activity and Behavior

Arboreal, slow-moving, mainly nocturnal. Usually found in shrubs, trees & vines more than 1 m above the ground. Not usually aggressive, but will strike if disturbed. Mainly prey on frogs, birds, lizards or small mammals. Bear 4-16 live young.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Primarily hemotoxic; envenomation has resulted in human deaths.

Bothriopsis chloromelas

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothriechis oligolepis, B. o. oligolepis, Bothriopsis oligolepis, B. peruvianus, Bothrops chloromelas, B. chrysomelas, B. oligolepis, B. peruvianus, Lachesis bilineatus var. oligolepis, L. chloromelas, L. peruvianus

Common Names: Engl.: Inca forest pitviper, Bolivia: yoperojobobo venenosa, Peru: achu jergon, lamon, jergon negro, loro machaco, yawayuochaco

Description

Medium-sized, moderately stocky, prehensile-tailed arboreal pitviper, adults may exceed 100 cm long, 23-25 midbody scale rows. Head mainly black on top, w/ pale green highlights, especially around edges. Chin creamy-yellow w/ black & green speckles. Body usually bright green, heavily blotched & speckled w/ black. Ventrals lighter, speckled w/ black & green, tongue black or red w/ black pigment.

Habitat

Not well studied, but found mainly in cloud forest in central Peruvian Andes, from 1,000-2,000+ m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

A rare species w/ not much known about its activities or behavior. Probably mainly nocturnal & arboreal, preying on available small mammals, birds & sometimes lizards or frogs.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but probably hemotoxic (like the venoms of most known related species). No well documented envenomations of humans, or related symptoms, nor deaths due to bites by this species, have been reported.

Bothriopsis medusa

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops eneydae, Lachesis medusa

Common Names: Venezuelan forest pitviper, mapanare-tigrito, tigra-mariposa, tigra-veinticuatro, viejita

Description

Small to medium-sized, moderately slender, arboreal pitviper, adults usually 50-80 cm long. Body colors include tan, yellowish-brown, gray, & olive green; body usually has a series of irregular dark dorsal bands w/ paler centers (bands indistinct in darker specimens).

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Habitat

Found mainly in lower montane wet forest & cloud forest in the central range of the Cordillera de la Costa, Venezuela (including relatively colder areas), at 475-2000 m elevation. Considered to be very rare, w/ low numbers due to loss of habitat.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known about the biology of this species. It is probably mainly arboreal (w/ a prehensile tail), but has only been collected while on the ground. Nocturnal, usually slow moving & not aggressive, but will strike rapidly when disturbed. Probably mainly preys on small mammals, maybe also eats frogs & lizards.

Venom Characteristics

Primarily hemotoxic; usually said to have a "mild effect" on humans; but there are some reports of serious envenomations.

Bothriopsis oligolepis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops chrysomelas, B. oligolepis, Bothropsis peruvianus, Lachesis bilineatus var. oligolepis, L. chloromelas

Common Names: Inca forest pitviper, jergon, jergon negro, loro machaco, sachavaca machaco

Description

Medium-sized, fairly slender, prehensile-tailed arboreal pitviper, adults usually about 80 cm long (max. 99 cm). Body greenish, very heavily blotched & speckled w/ black; many ill-defined black blotches (often w/ pale borders) often forming crossbands, & often bordered by yellow-white; 23 midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly yellow w/ pale green mottling. Outer part of tail pinkish w/ mottling (may be all dark).

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Habitat

Mainly reported from wet montane forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes in southeastern Peru & northern Bolivia at 1,500-2,500 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

This is a very rare species & not much is known about it habitat or activity. Probably mainly arboreal, & nocturnal, but collection sites are often cold, & thus, this may be a diurnal (or seasonally diurnal) species; probably preying mainly on small mammals & birds.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Probably hemotoxic, but no documented reports of human envenomations, or their effects.

Bothriopsis pulchra

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothriecus albocarinata, B. alticola, B. oligolepis albocarinatus, Bothrops albocarinatus, B. alticola, B. alticolus, B. leptura, B. monticelli, B. mahnerti, B. pulcher, B. pulchra, Bothriopsis albocarinata, B. alticola, B. punctata, B. punctatus, Lachesis pulcher, Trigonocephalus pulcher

Common Names: Andean forest pitviper, Chocoan forest pitviper, loro mashaco, mscanchillo, cuatronarices, dormilona, lecha, pelo de gato, ysipi

Description

Small, moderately slender, arboreal pitviper, adults usually about 70 cm long; tail relatively long & prehensile. Body pale brown to greenish-tan, darker pale-bordered dorsal blotches may coalesce w/ lateral blotches forming irregular bands; 19-23 midbody dorsal scale rows. Head tan on top w/ symmetrical paired dark stripes or marks. Belly yellow w/ black mottling.

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Habitat

Found mainly in cloud forest or upper montane temperate forest, at 300-3,000 m elevation, on the Pacific foothills of the Andes & coastal plain from western Colombia, through Ecuador into northwestern Peru.

Activity and Behavior

Not well known, but probably mainly nocturnal, arboreal & not very aggressive. As w/ all "forest pitvipers," caution should be exercised when moving through dense secondary growth in forested foothills within their range. Probably prey mainly on small rodents & birds, & sometimes on lizards or frogs.

Venom Characteristics

Probably hemotoxic, but not much known, & no well documented cases of envenomation of humans, or reports of resultant symptoms.

Bothriopsis taeniata

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothriechis teaniatus, Bothrops castelnaudi, B. c. lichenosus, B. lichenosa, B. taeniatus, B. t. lichenosis, B. t. taeniatus, Bothriopsis taeniata lichenosa, B. t. taeniata, Lachesis castelnaudi Bothriopsis taeniata, Bothrops castelnaudi

Common Names: Engl.: Speckled forest pitviper, Brazil: jararaca-amarela, jararaca-cinca, jararaca cinzenta, jararaca-tigrina, Columbia: cuatronarices, estralita, macabrel, macaurel, rabo de raton, Peru: huicvont, huicvonto, jergon, jergon de arbol, jergon arbicola, marashar, nashipkit, Suriname: boomoroekoekoe, Venezuela: mapanare, mapanare liquenosa

Description

Description

Small, stout-bodied, terrestrial toadheaded pitviper, adults usually 40-50 cm long (max. 83 cm); 21-25 midbody dorsal scale rows, w/ distinctive up-turned snout. Apparently sexually dimorphic w/ males smaller & darker. Similar to other species in this genus in regard to coloration & variations of patterning. For some example variations, See Bothrocophias campbelli.

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Craspedocephalus brasiliensis, Lachesis alternata, L. alternatus, L. inaequalis, Trimeresurus alternatus

Common Names: Engl.: Urutu, Argentina: kiririog-aka-kurussu, mboi cuaia, vibora de la cruz, yarara, yarara grande, Brazil: biocoatiara, biocoatiara coatiara, cotiara, cruzeira, cruzeiro, jararaca de agosto, jarara rabo-de-porco, urutu, Paragauy: Mboi-cuatia, Mboi-kwatiara, yarara acacusu, Uruguay: crucera, vibora de la cruz, yarara

Description

Large, heavy-bodied, pitviper, adults usually 1.0-1.7 m long (max. 2.0+ m). Body color variable; may be brown, tan, or gray, sometimes w/ an olive cast. Body usually has a series of C-shaped darker markings boldly outlined w/ paler scales. Belly pale whitish-gray, w/ a dark brown stripe (wider toward tail) from neck to tail tip.

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Habitat

Found mainly in low-lying swampy areas, river banks, marshes, & other humid habitats at elevations up to 700 m. Also in open fields & rocky areas in Argentina. Found in tropical, semitropical & temperate forest & is said to be common in cultivated areas & near human habitations. Seldom ever found in very dry situations.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal. Easily aroused when threatened, it can be aggressive & will defend itself vigorously. Ovoviviparous w/ 1-24 young/ litter. Prey mainly on frogs, toads, etc. as juveniles; then as adults mainly on small mammals, birds, & sometimes lizards.

Venom Characteristics

Primarily hemotoxic & cytotoxic; envenomation by this, & related Bothrops spp., can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue necrosis. This species is an important cause of snakebite throughout its range, most bites are to lower limbs. Although seldom fatal to humans, bites are fairly common.

Bothrops ammodytoides

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops burmeisteri, B. nasus, B. patagonicus, Lachesis ammodytoides, Rhinocerophis nasus

Common Names: Engl.: Patagonian lancehead, yararanata, Local Names: Cenicienta, yara nata

Description

Small to medium-sized, stocky terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 50-80 cm long (max. about 100 cm) w/ 23-25 midbody dorsal scale rows. Body usually tan or gray dorsally, w/ a series of 30-32 prominent, large, rounded, dark-brown blotches separated by paler areas; smaller, less well-defined dark blotches occur later in life. Head w/ upturned snout & dark-brown postorbital stripe. Belly white w/ scattered black speckling, especially along sides.

Habitat

Most common in temperate to subtropical savannas & steppes, primarily in sandy, rocky areas, including coastal dunes, steep river banks, & salt flats. May frequent small mammal burrows in rocky plains areas. Occurs from near sea level to 2,000+ m elevation. Found only in central & southern Argentina. May be the southernmost snake species in the world.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial & nocturnal, & reportedly has an irritable temperament. Ovoviviparous w/ litter number reportedly depending on size of female, probably seldom >20 young/litter.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known for this species. In general, Bothrops venoms are mainly hemotoxic & cytotoxic; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. This species is capable of causing human fatalies.

Bothrops andianus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops andiana, B. pictus, Lachesis lanceolatus (in part)

Common Names: Andean lancehead, jergon, jergona, terciopelo, la chuta, dormilona, hupachilla

Description

Medium to large-sized, terrestrial lancehead pitviper, adults usually 60-70 cm long (max. 125.8 cm). Body usually olive-gray to brown, w/ a series of dark, pale-edged rounded triangles along the sides, 21-25 midbody dorsal scale rows. Head usually w/ a very wide dark postorbital stripe. Belly cream to yellow, mottled heavily w/ dark gray, brown or black w/ yellowish median streak on front half.

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Habitat

Found mainly in wetter forested areas at 1,800-3,300 m elevation. Limited to areas in the high Andes in central & western Bolivia & southeastern Peru.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known; probably mainly nocturnal & terrestrial. Ovoviviparous w/ litter size dependent on body size of the female (no specific numbers reported), & probably seldom >20 neonates/ litter. Probably prey mainly on available small mammals, birds, & maybe lizards & frogs.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Venom of most Bothrops species is mainly hemotoxic w/ some cytotoxic factors. Envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. Potentially capable of causing human deaths.

Bothrops asper

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops atrox asper, B. a. septentrionalis, B. a. xanthogrammus, Bothrops xanthogrammus, Lachesis xanthogrammus, Trigonocephalus asper, T. xanthogrammus

Common Names: Terciopelo, barba amarilla, cantil, cantil Boca dorado, cantil devanador, yellow-jaw tommygoff, equis, equis negra, cascabelle, toboba rabo amarilla, cuatronarices, pelo de gato, nauyaca, taya equis, fer-de-lance (plus many more slight local variations of these; >100 variant common names)

Description

Large, moderately slender, lance-headed, adults usually 1.2-1.8 m long (max. 3.05 m); body colors & patterns highly variable, but many specimens are light brown to olive-grey & appear to have a series of dark X’s down their back, 23-33 (usually 25-29) midbody dorsal scale rows. Head almost no dorsal markings, postorbital stripe present, snout markedly pointed, underside of head plain pale yellow. Venter pale yellow, cream or whitish-gray.

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Habitat

Found mainly in lowlands & coastal plains, from sea level to 1,300 m elevation, but may reach 2,700 m in Andes areas. Most common in tropical rainforest & tropical evergreen forest, from southeastern Mexico through Central America to Ecuador & Venezuela (to Trinidad). Seldom found in very dry habitats.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, but may climb bushes & low trees. Often seeks prey near human habitations & in or near cultivated areas. Excitable & unpredictable if disturbed; easily provoked to strike. Moves very rapidly & defends itself aggressively. Ovoviviparous w/ 25-70 (avg. 40) young/ litter. Young eat arthropods & other exothermic prey until large enough to swallow small rodents; then they shift to warm-blooded (endothermic) prey, & often use their tail to lure prey.

Venom Characteristics

Has a large supply of potent mainly hemotoxic venom w/ cytotoxic factors; envenomation can cause systemic internal bleeding & serious local tissue destruction. Causes immediate burning pain, edema, local hemorrhage, discoloration, necrosis, can cause wide-spread hemmorrhage (at multiple sites & intracranial), coagulopathy, severe hypotension, renal failure & shock. Causes more human deaths than any other pitviper species in the Western Hemisphere.

Bothrops atrox

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops affinis, B. furia, B. isabelae, B. neuvoiedii venezuelenzi, B. sabinii, B. subscutatus, Coluber atrox, C. lanceolatus, Lachesis atrox, L. lanceolatus, Trigonocephalus asper, Trimeresurus atrox

Common Names: Common lancehead, Fer-de-Lance, caicaca, acuamboia, caissaca, bulla barbara amarilla, machacu, taya, taya equis, jararaca, cascabel (juveniles only, in Peru) mapanare, Gewohnliche Lanzenotter (plus >40 additional variant local names).

Description

Large, moderately heavy-bodied lancehead, adults usually 75-125 cm long (max. 162 cm); body color & patterns extremely variable, but most specimens have a dorsal body pattern w/ a series of distinct light-edged, dark cross bands (sometimes pattern nearly indistinguishable), head brownish to grey w/ dark postocular stripe, lower surface of head & body yellow to whitish w/ variable dark markings (fade toward the tail). Juvenile tail tip often yellowish or pink.

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Habitat

Found in low montane forest throughout most tropical lowlands of South America east of the Andes, exclusive of Argentina, Paraguay & Uraguay; up to 1,300 m elevation in eastern slopes of the Andes. Prefer damp locales in association w/ creeks, lakes, or rivers; also found in cultivated areas & around human habitations, including weedy urban lots.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, but will climb shrubs or trees up to 4 m above the ground. Often lives near human habitation. Young eat ectothermic prey (including arthropods) until they are large enough to swallow small rodents; then they switch to mainly endothermic prey (mammals, birds). Sometimes aggressive if cornered and may strike quickly if disturbed. Ovoviviparous w/ 8-24 young/ litter reported.

Venom Characteristics

Has a large amount of potent venom that is mainly hemotoxic w/ cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in intense immediate pain, edema, severe local tissue necrosis, systemic internal bleeding, renal failure, hypotension & shock. Reported to cause human fatalities often.

Bothrops barnetti

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Trimeresurus barnetti

Common Names: Barnett’s lancehead, cascabel, false cascabel, macanch, san carranca, zancarranca

Description

Small to medium-sized, stout, terrestrial lancehead, adults usually 50-80 cm long (max. 140 cm). Body color usually varies from medium brown to pale gray to straw; body usually w/ paired dorsolateral dark brown pale-bordered triangular or trapezoidal blotches that alternate or meet at dorsal midline, 23-25 midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly white w/ dark brown speckling along sides. Most dorsal scales have apical pits.

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Habitat

Only reported from near streams, in arid desert scrub areas at elevations near sea level; & only in coastal northwestern Peru, so far (maybe occurs into coastal southwestern Ecuador, but no known specimens from there).

Activity and Behavior

Very little known, but probably mainly terrestrial & mainly nocturnal. Probably ovoviviparous (litter size not reported), & probably prey mainly on available small mammals & birds, maybe also lizards or frogs.

Venom Characteristics

Specific data are lacking. Venom of most species of Bothrops is mainly hemotoxic w/ some cytotoxic factors. Envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. Potentially capable of causing human fatalities.

Bothrops brazili

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops neglectus (in part)

Common Names: Engl.: Brazil’s lancehead, Brazil: jararaca vermelha, jararacussu, surucucu vermelha, Columbia: rabo de raton, Guyana: kalakunaro, Peru: cascabel, jergon, jergon shushupe, Suriname: bergi-owroekoekoe, boesi-owroekoekoe, labaria, morabana, oroekoekoe, Venezuela: mapanare, mapanare de Amazonus

Description

Medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied, lancehead pitvipers, adults usually 70-90 cm long (max. 140+ cm). Body usually varies from coppery-brown to pale-gray; usually w/ paired dorsolateral pale-bordered darker blotches that may meet dorsally, forming irregular bands or "C's". Has 23-29 (usually 25-27) midbody dorsal scale rows, often w/ rusty tinge along vertebral line. Belly yellow to pinkish-cream w/ slightly darker mottling. Tail sometimes mostly black.

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Habitat

Found mainly in elevated primary forests in northern & central South America, from near sea level to 500 m elevation. Appears to be restricted to humid leaf litter habitats.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial; can be aggressive & will strike if molested or accidentally touched. Ovoviviparous w/ litter size not reported, but likely <20 young (depends a lot on the body size of the female). Prey mainly on available small rodents, birds, & often also lizards & frogs.

Venom Characteristics

Specific data are lacking; reportedly "greatly feared" by Amerindians in southern Colombia. Venom of most species of Bothrops is mainly hemotoxic, w/ cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. Has the potential to cause human deaths, but bites & serious envenomations by this species are relatively seldom reported, & reported fatalities are rare.

Bothrops caribbaeus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops caribbaea, B. lanceolatus caribbaeus, B. sabinii, B. scutatus, B. subscutatus, Coluber lanceolatus (in part), Trigonocephalus caribbaeus

Common Names: St. Lucia lancehead, fer-de-lance, rat-tail, serpent, Saint Lucia serpent, Saint Lucia viper

Description

A large semi-arboreal, lancehead pitviper, adults usually about 1.0 m long (max. 2.13 m). Body dorsal ground color varies & is usually gray, but may be gray, gray-brown, yellow, or even red; w/ 25-29 midbody dorsal scale rows. Has a dull dark brown to black postorbital stripe behind each eye. Belly usually all yellow; tail usually gray to pink w/ irregular pale marks (usually either pink or yellow in juveniles).

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Habitat

Mainly found in lowland tropical forest, some coastal plain regions of low humidity, only on Saint Lucia island. It is said to be abundant in cocoa plantations and beneath piles of coconut husks. Mainly found from near sea level to 200 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Limited data available. Reportedly mainly nocturnal, mainly terrestrial, yet often semi-arboreal. Usually avoids humans, but will quickly strike if disturbed even a little bit. Ovoviviparous, w/ litter size not reported, but probably about 20-30 young per litter. Prey mainly on rodents & other small mammals commonly found in their habitat. Sometimes will also eat available birds, lizards or frogs.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but probably mainly hemotoxic w/ cytotoxic factor(s). Has been reported to cause human fatalities. For generalized envenomation effects of a closely related species, See Bothrops asper.

Bothrops cotiara

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Lachesis cotiara

Common Names: Engl.: cotiara, Argentina: cotiara, yarara de vientre negro, Brazil: boicoatiara, boicotiara, coatiara, cotiara, jararaca-de-barriga-preta, jararaca preta, kwatiara, Mboi-kwatiara

Description

Adult length usually 0.7-1.0 m; a moderately heavy-bodied snake. Background color usually tan to pale olive-brown; body usually has a series of large pale-edged darker brown rounded trapezoidal to triangular blotches on either side of the midline, 25-29 (usually 27) midbody dorsal scale rows, belly usually cream "powdered" w/ black & darker along sides.

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Habitat

Most common in humid, temperate Araucaria (monkey-puzzle) forest & associated savanna at elevations up to 1,800 m. in southeastern Brazil & northern Argentina.

Activity and Behavior

Limited data, but probably mainly nocturnal & terrestrial. Probably similar to other closely related species (e.g., See Bothrops atrox).

Venom Characteristics

Specific data are lacking. Bothrops venom primarily is hemotoxic & has cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. Human fatalities have been reported.

Bothrops diporus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops neuwiedi diporus, B. neuwiedii diporus, B. n. meridionalis

Common Names: Engl.: Chaco lancehead, Argentina: crucera, kiririog, pina machajuay, vibora de la cruz, vibora de rabo blanco,yara, yarara, yarara chica, yarara de cola blanca, yarara-i, yararaquina, Brazil: boca de sapo, bocuda, cabeca-de-capanga, jarara-cussu, jararaca, jararaca-do-rabo-branco, jararaca-pintada, jararaquinha, urutu, Paraguay: kyryry'o

Description

Terestrial, medium build lancehead, adults usually 60-70 cm long (max. 110 cm); Body color medium to dark brown; patterned w/ a row of white-edged dark-brown to black dorsolateral blotches, 23-27 midbody dorsal scale rows, venter pale w/ not much marking.

Habitat

Found mainly in seasonally dry lower montane forest at elevations of about 1,500 m in northern Argentina, Paraguay & southern Brazil.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known, but terrestrial & probably mainly nocturnal. Probably similar to closely related species (e.g., See Bothrops neuwiedii).

Venom Characteristics

Specific data are lacking. Bothrops venoms are mainly hemotoxic & often have cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. Potentially lethal to humans, but human fatalities not well documented, so far.

Bothrops erythromelas

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops erythromelas, Lachesis neuwiedi itapetiningae (in part)

Common Names: Caatinga lancehead, cabeca-de-capanga, jararaca, jararaca dasecca, jararaca-malha-de-cascavel, jararacussu

Description

Small, moderately slender pitviper, adults usually 40-50 cm long (max. 85 cm). Body color usually brown to reddish-brown w/ a series of pale-edged dark-brown to black blotches that may coalesce to form irregular bands, 19-21 midbody dorsal scale rows. Head brown to reddish-brown, variably marked, belly yellowish-tan w/ ill-defined dark blotches along sides.

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Habitat

Most common in dry & semiarid thorn forest & open rocky areas, but also reported from along river margins, only in northeastern Brazil. May be found under mats of terrestrial bromeliads. Found up to 2,000 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known; reportedly responsible for many snakebites within its range, but reported human fatalities not well documented.

Venom Characteristics

Bothrops venom primarily is hemotoxic & often have cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. B. erythromelas venom lacks thrombin-like activity because of its fibrinogenolytic effect.

Bothrops fonsecai

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops alternatus (in part)

Common Names: Fonseca’s lancehead, cotiara, jararaca, urutu

Description

Medium to large-sized, heavy-bodied, pitviper, adults usually 1.0-1.5 m long. Body color usually tan to medium-brown w/ a dorsal series of pale-edged black blotches that may alternate or coalesce to form irregular crossbands. Sides each have a series of 17-19 paired smaller dark blotches, & 26-28 midbody dorsal scale rows. A pair of moveable front fangs.

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Habitat

Most common in well-drained areas of the Atlantic forest zone at elevations dominated by Araucaria, Podocarpus, & other trees.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial & probably mainly nocturnal. Prey mainly on small mammals, possibly also on available birds or lizards.

Venom Characteristics

No specific data. Bothrops venoms are primarily hemotoxic & often have cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. No data reported on case studies of treatment for this species.

Bothrops insularis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Lachesis insularis, Trimeresurus insularis

Common Names: Golden lancehead, jararaca ilhoa, Insel-Lanzenotter

Description

Moderately slender, medium-sized pitviper, adults usually 70-100 cm long. Body color usually pale yellowish-brown, sometimes w/ a series of darker irregular bands or large blotches; 23-29 (usually 25) midbody dorsal scale rows. Head pale yellowish-brown dorsally. Belly lighter yellowish brown, sometimes speckled w/ small darker blotches (if present, usually increase toward tail).

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Habitat

This species is endemic to Ilha Queimada Grande (state of Sao Paulo), an island 64 km southwest of Bahia de Santos off the southeast coast of Brazil. Found in dry, rocky, open scrubby forests, max. elevation of the island is about 200 m.

Activity and Behavior

There is a high density of this species on the island. Indications are that the species is one of the few species in which the presence of intersexes has been found. Preys almost exclusively on birds.

Venom Characteristics

Bothrops venom primarily is hemotoxic & often has cytotoxic factors; envenomation can cause systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. B. insularis venom reportedly is exceptionally toxic.

Bothrops itapetiningae

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Lachesis itapetiningae, L. neuwiedi itapetiningae

Common Names: Sao Paulo lancehead, boipeva, cotiarinha, furta-cor, jararaca do campo, pequena cotiara

Description

Small, stocky pitviper, smallest in Brazil. Adults usually 30-40 cm long (max. 50 cm). Background color usually pale or dark brown w/ red, pink, or orange overtones; usually w/ a series of white-edged, dark, narrow, transversely oval blotches, narrowly separated both dorsally & laterally. Has 25-27 midbody dorsal scale rows.

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Habitat

Found mainly in open fields & bushy areas up to 1,500 m elevation. Occurs along the northern Paraguay border w/ Brazil.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial & probably mainly nocturnal. Apparently preys on available small mammals, birds & sometimes maybe lizards or frogs, too.

Venom Characteristics

Specific data are lacking. Bothrops venom is primarily hemotoxic & often has cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. Dried venom is whitish, much like that of Bothrops erythromelas.

Bothrops jararaca

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops leucostigma, B. taeniatus, B. tessellatus (in part), Cophias jajaraca, C. jararaca, C. jararakka, Craspedocephalus brasiliensis, Crotalus craspedocephalus brasiliensis, Lachesis lanceolatus (in part), Trigonocephalus jararaca

Common Names: Engl.: jararaca, Argentina: yararaca, yararaca perezosa, Brazil: caissaca, jaraca, jararaca, jararaca-da-matta-virgem, jararaca-do-rabo-branco, jararaca-do-campo, jararaca-do-cerrado, jararaca-dormideira, jararaca-dominhoca, jararaca-preguicosa, malha-de-sapo, Paraguay: yarara

Description

Medium-sized, relatively slender, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 80-160 cm long. Background color can vary from yellow or tan to nearly maroon (overall, usually darker at both ends of the body); body pattern is extremely variable w/ irregular sizes & shapes of dark blotches (usually edged w/ a thin line of lighter or white scales), 20-27 (usually 23-25) midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly nearly always lighter than dorsum.

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Habitat

Most common in open regions near vegetation cover at low to intermediate elevations. Occupies a diversity of habitats: tropical deciduous (broadleaf) forests & semitropical upland forests in southern Brazil, northeastern Argentina & northeastern Paraguay. Found from near sea level to >1,000 m elevation & on some islands up to 35 km off the Atlantic coast of Brazil.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial & mainly nocturnal; locally abundant in many parts of its range.

Venom Characteristics

Specific data are lacking; reportedly an important cause of snakebite in many parts of its range. Bothrops venom primarily is hemotoxic & often w/ cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction.

Bothrops jararacussu

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Lachesis atrox jararacussu, L. jararacussu, L. lanceolatus (in part)

Common Names: Engl.: jararacussu, Argentina: kiririog-saiyu, surucucu apete, yarara-cussu, yarara dorada, yarara-guasu, Bolivia: yope pintada, yoperojobobo venenosa, Brizil: cabeca de sapo, patrona, jararacucu, jararacucu malha de sapo, jararacucu tapete, jararacucu verdadeiro, surucucu dourado, surucucu tapete, urutu amarelo, urutu dourado, urutu estrela, urutu preto, Paraguay: yarara-guasu, yarara-guazu

Description

Medium-sized to large, heavy-bodied, pitviper, adults usually 1.0-2.2 m long. Body color & patterns of head & body are extremely variable- background color can vary from tan or yellow to nearly black. However, the pattern of dark & pale scales on many specimens look like a series of dark arches along each side (edged w/ white), sometimes blotches are joined at the dorsal mid-line forming narrow "saddles" (may look like dark "X"-es, viewed from directly above).

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Habitat

Found up to 700 m elevation in a wide variety of habitats, including tropical rainforest, tropical semi-deciduous forest, broadleaf evergreen forest, & parana pine forest in swampy, low-lying areas & along river margins.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, nocturnal, apparently preys mainly on small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but has an exceptionally large venom capacity & is an important cause of snakebite in its range. Venom primarily is hemotoxic & cytotoxic; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction.

Bothrops jonathani

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Jonathan's lancehead, Chocobamba lanchead, yoperojobobo

Description

Medium-sized, moderately robust pitviper, adults usually 50-80 cm long (max. 88 cm). Body background color usually dark tan; dorsal pattern consists of 34 pairs of dorsolateral triangular to V-shaped dark-brown blotches edged in cream. Apices of the blotches point upwards, & can be staggered or those on opposite sides may touch at vertebral line; 30-33 midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly whitish w/ staggered gray bands.

Habitat

Found mainly in dry rocky grasslands & desert scrub along the high eastern slopes of the Altiplano of central & southern Bolivia, mainly found at 2,800-3,220 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Not much reported & seldom seen, but mainly nocturnal & terrestrial. Probably preys mainly on small mammals (& sometimes birds).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Bothrops venom primarily is hemotoxic & often has cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction.

Bothrops lanceolatus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops braziliensis, B. cinereus, B. glaucus, B. lanceolata, B. lanceolatus lanceolatus, Coluber brasiliensis, C. glaucus, C. hastatus, C. lanceolatus, C. megaera, C. tigrinis, Craspedocephalus brasiliensis, Lachesis lanceolata, L. lanceolatus, Trigonocephalus lanceolatus, T. tigrinis, Vipera brasiliana, V. brasiliniana, V. caerulescens, V. coerulescens, V. lanceolatus, V. tigrina

Common Names: Martinique lancehead, fer-de-lance (the first Bothrops given this common name), le serpent, le trignoncephale, serpent, serpent croissant (females), serpent jaune (males), serpent rouge (males & juveniles), vipere jaune

Description

Large, semi-arborial, heavy-bodied lancehead, adults usually 150-200 cm long (max. 298 cm); Body color varies from gray to brown to yellowish-tan, usually w/ indistinct darker markings dorsally & laterally; top of head usually darker than the body. Belly usually lighter yellowish-gray to grayish-brown, sometimes speckled w/ small darker grayish blotches.

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Habitat

Primarily in tropical moist forest & tropical wet forest in upland areas; also occurs in rocky hillsides. Previously reported from other Caribbean islands, but recently found only on Martinique, from sea level to 1,300 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & mainly terrestrial, but may be semi-arboreal; has been found up to 20 m above ground. Aggressive; can strike quickly when surprised or threatened. Ovoviviparous, w/ litter size not reported. Preys mainly on available small mammals, birds, lizards, & possibly also frogs.

Venom Characteristics

Bothrops venom primarily is hemotoxic, often w/ cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. Human deaths from the bite of B. lanceolatus have been recorded.

Bothrops leucurus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops magaera, B. pradoi, Trimeresurus pradoi

Common Names: Bahia lancehead, white-tailed lancehead, jararaca, boca-podre, cabeca-de-capanga, cabece-de-patrona, caicaca, capangueiro, jararaca-do-rabo-branco, jaracucu, jararacussu, malha-de-sapo

Description

Slender, terrestrial lancehead, adults usually 60-100 cm long (max. 195 cm); Background colors vary from tan to reddish-brown, usually w/ a variable pattern of darker & paler markings, giving an appearance of diagonal dorsolateral pale lines. Has 23-31 midbody dorsal scale rows; belly yellow or whitish w/ dark brown or gray spots & irregular blotches heaviest along sides.

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Habitat

Associated w/ remnants of Atlantic forest in humid, rocky valleys; also found in deforested agricultural areas, in eastern Brazil, from sea level to 400 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known. Terrestrial & mainly nocturnal. Probably preys on available small animals. Probably ovoviviparous (clutch size not given).

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Bothrops venom primarily is hemotoxic, often w/ cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. There is no data on case studies of treatments. Bites of humans rather rare, & no well documented human fatalities from those bites.

Bothrops lojanus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops alticola, B. lojana, Bothriopsis alticola

Common Names: Lojan lancehead, macanchi, macaucho

Description

Small, moderately stocky, terrestrial lancehead, adults usually 40-50 cm long (max. 61 cm); Background color usually tan to medium-brown, usually w/ a darker zig-zag stripe down the back & indistinct dark blotches along the sides; 21-23 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows. Overall, colors appear rather dull. Belly yellow w/ pale-brown to dark brown mottling, becoming darker toward tail. Tail often reddish on underside near tip.

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Habitat

Mainly reported from arid, temperate, montane dry forest in southern Ecuador at 2,100-2,300 m elevation. Has a relatively small geographic range.

Activity and Behavior

Not much reported. Mainly terrestrial, probably mainly nocturnal, ovoviviparous (clutch size not recorded), & mainly preys on available lizards, small mammals, etc.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Bothrops venoms are primarily hemotoxic & often have cytotoxic factors, too; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. Poses a potential risk of serious envenomation within its range, but no human fatalities documented from bites by this species, so far.

Bothrops lutzi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops iglesiasi, B. neuwiedi lutzi, B. n. neuwiedi, B. n. piauhyensis, Lachesis lutzi

Common Names: Sertao lancehead, Boca de sapo, jararaca, jararaca-do-rabo-branco, jararaquinha, rabo-de-osso, tira peia

Description

Small to medium-sized, fairly slender, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 40-70 cm long. Body usually pale brown to gray, w/ a series of pale-edged darker irregular blotches; 21-25 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows. Head brown, usually w/ white markings above the eyes & near base of the neck. Belly usually grayish-brown to pale gray, often w/ a limited amount of variable pattern of mixed sizes of darker grayish brown blotches or speckles (heavier along sides & toward tail).

Habitat

Primarily in dry to semiarid rocky regions, from sea level to 800 m elevation; found only in Brazil. Reported from inland region of the state of Piaui, "along the right bank" of the Rio Gurgueia.

Activity and Behavior

Not well known, but apparently mainly terrestrial & nocturnal (possibly crepuscular; sometimes active around dusk). Probably preys mainly on small mammals & amphibians, as well as on available birds or lizards. Probably ovoviviparous.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Bothrops venom primarily is hemotoxic & often cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction. No reported data on case studies of treatment of envenomations by this species. No well documented human deaths due to bites by this species, so far.

Bothrops marajoensis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops lanceolatus (in part)

Common Names: Marajo lancehead, jararaca

Description

Terrestrial, moderately heavy-bodied lancehead, adults usually 100-150 cm long; Body color usually olive brown above, w/ a series of prominent trapezoidal markings laterally, formed by pairs of vertically aligned pale marks & rounded black blotches; 25 midbody dorsal scale rows, dorsal scales have long, low keels (vs. short, higher keels for B. atrox). Belly is cream to yellow heavily checkered w/ black. Tail often black.

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Habitat

Most common in mainland coastal lowland savanna, mainly on the Ihla Marajo in the Amazon River.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial & probably mainly nocturnal. Very closely related to B. atrox, & may have very similar habits & behaviors.

Venom Characteristics

Specific data are lacking. Bothrops venoms are primarily hemotoxic & may have cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding and local tissue destruction. Note 100% sure if this antivenin will work. There is no data on case studies of treatme

Bothrops mattogrossensis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops neuwiedi bolivianus, B. n. mattogrossensis, B. neuwiedii boliviana, B. n. mattogrossensis

Common Names: Engl.: Mato Grosso lancehead, Bolivia: yoperoyobobo, Brazil: boca de sapo, bocuda, cabeca-de-capanga, jaracussu, jararaca, jararaca cruseira, jararaca-do-rabo-branco, jararaquinha, rabo-de-osso, Paraguay: kyryry'o

Description

Medium-sized, moderately heavy terrestrial lancehead pitviper, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 130 cm). Body pale brown to dark olive-brown above, w/ 16-33 dark brown to black dorsolateral blotches (usually white-edged), & 22-27 (usually 23-25) midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly white or yellow w/ scattered darker gray specks. Juveniles w/ white tail tip. For a closely-related species, See Bothrops neuwiedi.

Habitat

Found mainly in savanna (cerrado), panatal, chaco, & wet palm-grasses, usually in association w/ flood-prone plains, in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, & Peru. Mainly found in flood-prone lowlands, & from near sea level to 500 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Not well known. Mainly terrestrial, but may be seasonally semi-arboreal (due to habitat flooding) & probably also is mainly nocturnal.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but probably mainly hemotoxic w/ some cytotoxic factors, like the venoms of many other Bothrops species.

Bothrops moojeni

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops atrox moojeni

Common Names: Brazilian lancehead, cabeca-de-capanga, caicaca, caissaca, jaracucu

Description

Large, terrestrial lancehead pitviper, adults usually <160 cm long (max. 230 cm). Usually tan, grayish-brown or olive-gray above, w/ 14-21 dark gray to black trapezoidal lateral markings, often opposite & touching at middorsal line. 23-29 midbody dorsal scale rows, Belly usually immaculate white or cream (may have scattered darker grayish dots). Juveniles usually w/ pale tail tip. For closely-related species, See Bothrops neuwiedi

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Habitat

Most common in semi-arid (or seasonally dry) tropical lowland savanna in Brazil, northeastern Argentina and northeastern Paraguay, at up to 1,500 m elevation. This species may possibly also be found in the Pantanal of Southeastern Departmento de Santa Cruz, Bolivia, as it is abundant a short distance away.

Activity and Behavior

Not well known. Terrestrial & probably mainly nocturnal.

Venom Characteristics

Little is known, but B. moojeni is an important cause of human snakebite in Minas Gerais, Goias, & Sao Paulo States. Bothrops venom primarily is hemotoxic & often has cytotoxic factors, too; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue distruction.

Bothrops muriciensis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Murici lancehead, Jararacucu

Description

Short, stout, terrestrial lancehead, adults usually less than 88 cm long; Background color usually reddish-brown to straw to gray, w/ 12-14 pairs of large dark gray, dorsolateral, trapezoidal blotches, usually on opposite sides & often meet dorsally forming crossbars. Dorsal scales keeled, w/ 25 midbody dorsal rows. Belly pale gray or yellowish w/ a suffusion of dark gray spots, heaviest & darkest along sides.

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Habitat

Found only in the Murici Forest, a closed-canopy remnant of the Atlantic wet forest of lowland coastal Brazil, & from sea level only up to about 40 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

This species is relatively rare & has not been well studied. It probably has activity & behavior patterns very similar to the most closely-related species "B. pirajai".

Venom Characteristics

Specific data are lacking. Bothrops venoms are primarily hemotoxic, often w/ cytotoxic factors; envenomation can result in systemic internal bleeding & local tissue destruction.

Bothrops neuwiedi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops neuwiedi bolivianus, B. n. diporus, B. n. fluminensis, B. n. goyazensis, B. n. lutzi, B. n. matogrossensis, B. n. neuwiedi, B. n. paranaensis, B. n. pauloensis, B. n. iauhyensis, B. n. pubescens, B. n. urutu, Bothrops atrox meridionalis, B. leucurus (in part), B. urutu, Lachesis lutzi, L. neuwiedi, Trigonocephalus pubescens

Common Names: Neuwied’s lancehead, cabeca-de-capanga, jararacussu, jararaca, jararaca-pintada, jararaca-cruceira, jararaca-do-rabo-branco, jararaquinha, rabo-de-osso, tira peia, crucera, urutu, pina machajuary, vibora de rabo blanco

Description

Description

Large, fairly stout terrestrial lancehead, adults usually about 1 m long (max. about 1.67 m). Body colors & patterns extremely variable & often complex w/ white, brown & black rhomboidal blotches, triangles & lines, sometimes includes a dark middorsal zigzag pattern toward tail. In most specimens, the tail is nearly uniformly black w/ a few transverse pale bars, 19-27 (usually 23-25) midbody dorsal scale rows, & w/ a very prominent dark postorbital stripe edged w/ white.

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Habitat

Most common in lower montane wet forest & cloud forest, including temperate areas where cold weather conditions occur, & also found in tropophilous semideciduous seasonal forest. Limited to northern & central Venezuela. Found mainly at 1,000-2,200 m; but has been reported from 600-2,800 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Not well known, but terrestrial & mainly nocturnal. Unpredictable temperament & can be easily aroused if threatened. It can strike fast over a short range. Reportedly appears to have no fear of humans & will not move away when approached.

Venom Characteristics

Venom can produce rapid tissue destruction. In severe envenomation, muscle liquefaction can be so extensive that the bones of a bitten limb can be visible after about 8 to 10 hours. Death can occur within 6 to 16 hours after envenomation. Very dangerous & causes significant number of human envenomations annually within its range.

Boulengerina annulata

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Boulengerina annulata annulata, B. a. stormsi, B. stormsi, Naja annulata

Common Names: Ringed water cobra, banded water cobra, Wasserkobra

Description

Large, relatively slender cylindrical Elapid snake, adults usually 1.4-2.2 m long (max. 2.7 m), w/ 21-23 midbody dorsal scale rows. Body glossy brown, grayish brown, or reddish brown, w/ pale belly (may be yellowish or orange in some specimens); often w/ black bands either all along body or just on front half. Tail usually glossy black. Relatively small eyes w/ round pupils, head short & broad. Head scales black-edged in subspecies "stormsi".

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Habitat

Usually found in or very near water; most common along lowland forested, bushy or wooded banks of lakes, rivers, & streams. Range includes most of Congo River basin & some forested areas north & west of that. Occasionally goes out onto open beaches or sandbars.

Activity and Behavior

Reportedly active in day & night. Aquatic (at least semi-aquatic), a good swimmer but often basks in low trees & shrubs. Recorded to dive to 25+ ft. deep & to remain submerged 10+ min. Nonaggressive, but when confronted, rears head & spreads narrow "hood." Oviparous (clutch size not reported), & preys mainly on available fish (& sometimes amphibians).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, probably mainly neurotoxic. No specific antivenom currently produced against this species.

Boulengerina christyi

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Limnonaja christyi

Common Names: Congo water cobra, Christy’s water cobra

Description

Description

Medium to large, adults usually 100-150 cm long (max. 180 cm); scales smooth, shiny, mid-dorsal row large, hexagonal, & obvious mid-dorsal ridge (true for all kraits). Body usually black, brownish black, or bluish black, w/ about 40 thin white crossbars, which may be indistinct or absent anteriorly. Belly usually white. Head flat, neck not very obvious. Has a pair of fixed, upper front fangs.

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Habitat

Found mainly in open country, cultivated areas, & scrub jungles in southern Asia, up to 1,700 m elevation. Avoids very rocky & sandy terrain. Often found in termite mounds, rat holes, rubbish heaps, & roofs of buildings.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial. Strictly nocturnal; seldom seen during day. Moves quickly at night. Specimens disturbed during day rarely bite, but instead, press their head against the ground. At night, extremely dangerous & aggressive. Often enters human dwellings, may try to crawl under sleeping persons; eats mainly other snakes (& their eggs).

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin. Most victims bitten while asleep in huts at night. Bites may produce invisible or barely perceptible puncture marks. Few local symptoms; may produce mild pain or numbness w/ little or no local swelling. Human mortality rate is high without use of antivenom. Polyvalent Antisnake Venom Serum

Bungarus candidus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Aspidoclonion semifasciatum, Bungarus candidus var. semifasciata, B. javanicus, B. semifasciatus, Coluber candidus

Common Names: Malayan krait, blue krait, Baluer Krait

Description

Medium to large, adults usually 120-140 cm long (max. about 150 cm); 15 longitudinal dorsal rows of smooth scales at midbody, a distinct mid-dorsal ridge, 19-30 black alternating w/ white or yellowish dorsal crossbands speckled w/ black on body & tail; belly pure white. Head not distinct from neck. Tail ends in a sharp tip.

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Habitat

Most common in lowland forests & moist areas, in Cambodia, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Bali, Salawese), Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, & Vietnam.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal & usually very timid (especially in daytime). Active at dusk & after dark. Usually inoffensive; will not usually bite unless stepped on. Often found near inhabited places & on trails at night. Mainly prey on other snakes, their eggs, & available other small animals. Oviparous, no clutch size reported (other observed related spp. usually lay 3-12 eggs/ clutch).

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin. Most victims bitten while asleep in huts at night. Local symptoms generally minimal. Symptoms may include abdominal discomfort, headache, & giddiness. Neurotoxic symptoms include ptosis, facial paralysis, & inability to open mouth, or extrude tongue. Human fatalities have been reported but are rare.

Bungarus ceylonicus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Bungarus ceylonicus ceylonicus, B. c. karavala

Common Names: Karawala, Ceylon krait, Sri Lanken krait

Description

Medium-sized, cylindrical, smooth-scaled, adults usually 60-80 cm long (max. 130 cm); a pair of upper fixed front fangs, body usually shiny steel blue-black, w/ about 20 distinct thin white crossbars, 15 longitudinal rows of scales at midbody, & a distinct vertebral ridge. Belly grayish. White dorsal bands reduce to white vertebral spots in older specimens; may eventually disappear.

Habitat

Prefers cool, moist habitat. Generally found in rain forests & hilly grassland areas. Seldom found above 1,000 m elevation. Currently known only from Sri Lanka.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal & terrestrial. During day, may hide under decaying vegetation, in forest & cultivated land, under stones, & in termite mounds, burrows, embankments, & crevices. When provoked, throws body into loose coils w/ head hidden beneath. Eats mainly other snakes, plus occasionally other available small animals.

Venom Characteristics

Not well studied, neurotoxic, potentially lethal to humans. For generalized symptoms of krait envenomation by a closely-related species, See Bungarus caeruleus.

Bungarus fasciatus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Aspidoclonion annulare (in part), Boa fasciata, Bungarus annularis, B. fasciatus bifasciatus, B. f. fasciatus, B. f. insularis, Pseudoboa fasciata

Common Names: Banded Krait, Gelbgebanderter krait

Description

Medium to large-sized, terrestrial, smooth scaled, one pair of upper fixed front fangs, adults usually 100-120 cm long (max. 210 cm); w/ a pattern of alternating light & dark bands circling body. Light bands pale to bright canary yellow; dark bands usually black, & wider; tail blunt. Distinctive light spear-shaped mark, bordered by black, on top of head; & w/ a distinct vertebral ridge most of body length.

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Habitat

Most common in grassy fields, meadows, & cultivated areas, often adjacent to streams, rivers, & lakes. Found up to 1,500 m elevation in Burma (Myanmar), Brunei Darussaam, southern China, India, Indonesia & most of Southeast Asia.

Activity and Behavior

Normally terrestrial & mainly nocturnal; may prowl in the daytime during & after rains. Usually inoffensive & secretive. Hides head beneath body if molested; may twitch or writhe spasmodically but seldom attempts to bite even when molested. Oviparous (as are all kraits) w/ usually 8-11 eggs per clutch.

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin. Minimal local pain, redness, or edema. Systemic symptoms develop slowly; include general achiness, paralysis, shock, & respiratory failure. Bites of humans are rare, but fatalities have been reported.

Bungarus flaviceps

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Bungarus flaviceps baluensis, B. f. flaviceps, Elaps bivirgatus, Megaerophis flaviceps

Common Names: Red-headed krait, Yellow-headed krait, Rotkopf krait

Description

Description

Medium to large-sized, smooth scaled, body w/ a distinct vertebral ridge, one pair of upper fixed front fangs, adults usually 80-100 cm long (max. 180 cm); body black or bluish-black, w/ 21-30 white or creamy white cross bands (7-11 whitish bands on pointed tail), 15 longitudinal dorsal rows of scales at midbody. Belly white or dirty-white.

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Habitat

Most commonly found in open woodland, grassy fields, & bamboo groves adjacent to water, such as ditches, rice paddies & streams. May be found in villages & suburban areas. Fairly geographically wide spread. Found up to 1,300 m elevation, in southern China, Burma, Indonesia, & most of Southeast Asia.

Activity and Behavior

Not well known. Terrestrial, strongly nocturnal, sluggish by day, more active at night. Eats mainly other snakes, but also available lizards or amphibians.

Venom Characteristics

Extremely potent neurotoxin. Local symptoms minimal. Bite usually felt as a pin-prick followed by slight itching, numbness, or redness; local swelling minimal. Systemic symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, ptosis, inability to speak, swallow, or open mouth, chest tightness, & breathing difficulties. Human fatalities due to bites by this spp. have been reported.

Bungarus niger

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Great black krait, black krait

Description

Medium to large-sized, smooth scaled, body w/ a distinct vertebral ridge, 15 parallel dorsal rows of scales at midbody, a pair of upper fixed front fangs. Adults usually 70-100 cm long; body black w/ thin whitish dorsal crossbands, whitish belly.

Habitat

Found mainly in forest openings, along trails, & sometimes up near human habitats, in lower areas from sea level possibly up to 1,000 m elevation, in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India & Nepal.

Activity and Behavior

Not very well known. Terrestrial, nocturnal, seldom seen. Sluggish by day, more active after dark. Mainly prey on other snakes. Probably oviparous (clutch size not reported).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Probably mainly neurotoxic. Potentially lethal to humans, but no well-documented fatalities have been reported to have been due to bites by this spp., so far.

Bungarus sindanus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Bungarus caeruleus sindanus, B. sindanus sindanus, B. s. razai, B. s. walli

Common Names: Sind krait

Description

Medium-sized krait adults about 60 cm long, body w/ distinct mid-dorsal ridge, & vertebral scales enlarged & hexagonal (as for all true kraits). Dorsal scales smooth, usually in 15 parallel rows at midbody. Body dark (brownish to blackish) w/ 30+ pale crossbands above, lighter (usually whitish) below. Has a pair of upper fixed front fangs. Head not distinct from neck. Tail ends in a sharp tip.

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Habitat

Mainly reported from low to moderate elevation (up to at least 200 m elevation) forested hills & moist brushy forest margins. Limited to southeastern Pakistan & India. Probably very similar to other closely related species. For generalized habitats of kraits, See Bungarus caeruleus.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known. Seldom seen. Probably mainly terrestrial, nocturnal, oviparous (no clutch size reported, but probably around 3-12 eggs), & mainly preys on other snakes (& maybe also other available small animals).

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but probably mainly neurotoxic. Human bites, serious envenomations, or fatalities not well-documented, so far. For generalized envenomation effects of closely related species of kraits, See Bungarus caeruleus.

Buthacus arenicola

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Buthus arenicola, Buthotus arenicola

Common Names:

Description

Medium-sized scorpion, adults usually about 4-6 cm long. Body medium-brown to dark-brown, w/ yellowish to light-brown legs, relatively few obvious or dark "hairs" (smoother-looking than Androctonus spp.), w/ post-abdomen relatively thick & wide (but less so than for Androctonus spp.).

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Habitat

Found mainly in scrubby, sparsely-vegetated places, sometimes in margins of cultivated areas &/or oases, usually in semi-arid sandy sites, from near sea level to medium elevations (possibly up to 400 m), in Mediterranean coastal regions of northern Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, hides in crevices or under various objects during the day. Preys mainly on insects & other arthropods, occasionally on very small lizards.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but mainly neurotoxic, w/ possible additional cytotoxic or myotoxic factors. Sting reportedly causes a lot of local pain, limited local redness & swelling, but no significant systemic effects or fatalities of humans recorded, so far.

Buthus occitanus

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Buthus occitanus occitanus

Common Names:

Description

Description

Description

Small, slender, cylindrical, adults 63-78 cm long (max. 80 cm), body usually dark reddish/ brownish (russet-pink) above, w/ 23-40 thin, widely-spaced, black, light-edged bands (some incomplete on flanks). Head black w/ very broad ivory-colored band behind eyes, bordered behind by broad black band; chin cream, belly yellowish w/ black marks. Tail w/ 2-6 thin black bands. Body scales smooth, in 13 parallel longitudinal midbody dorsal rows.

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Habitat

Found mainly in forest litter, near streams of lowlands (up to 1,000 m) throughout most of Southeast Asia. Tend to avoid very dry & very open places.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (semi-burrowing). Mainly eats other snakes & lizards. Oviparous, w/ usually 6-14 eggs/ clutch.

Venom Characteristics

Not well studied, but probably mainly neurotoxic (like most Elapids). Very few reported cases of human envenomation (at least once reported to have caused fatality of a child) & those are not well documented.

Calliophis maculiceps

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Calliophis maculiceps atrofrontalis, C. m. hughi, C. m. maculiceps, C. m. michaelis, C. m. smithi, C. m. var. univirgatus, Callophis hughi, C. maculiceps, Elaps atrofronatlis, E. maculiceps, E. melanusus, Maticora maculiceps, M. m. hughi, M. m. maculiceps, M. m. michaelis

Common Names: Speckled coral snake, Small-spotted coral snake, Gesprenkelte Korallenotter

Description

Small, slender, cylindrical, adults usually 45-50 cm long (max. female 130 cm), body above brown to reddish w/ black spots arranged longitudinally along each side, head not distinct from neck, black dorsally, w/ some yellow marks & spots, belly red to pink, tail pale blue or grey below, w/ two black rings. Some individuals w/ thin black vertebral stripe, some w/ no patterning. Body scales smooth, in 13 parallel longitudinal midbody dorsal rows.

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Habitat

Found mainly in forest floor litter, under logs & in similar places (usually fairly near water), up to 1,000 m elevation. Found throughout most of Southeast Asia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (burrowing), secretive. Prey mainly on other available small snakes (especially worm-snakes, like Typhlops spp.) & lizards. Oviparous, one captured specimen reported to have laid a clutch of only 2 eggs. Not aggressive. Usually forage in & under leaf litter; also in or around ant hills (where its main prey snakes tend to be found).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but probably neurotoxic (like most other Elapids). Not reported to have seriously envenomated nor killed humans.

Calliophis spp.

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Currently at least 14 separate named spp. in this genus. See separate entries for more details about eaach of the 6 most common & widespread spp.

Common Names: Asiatic coral snakes, long-glanded coral snakes, Oriental coral snakes

Description

Small to medium-sized slender, brightly-colored, adults usually 0.3-0.5 m long (max. about 1.0 m); have a pair of upper fixed front fangs, body diameter about size of a finger. Colors usually bright, variable. Representative patterns exemplified by Calliophis macclellandii & C. sauteri: body color usually russet to pink dorsally, usually w/ narrow, contrasting bands, stripes or rows of spots.

Habitat

Found mainly in scrub jungles & monsoon forests. Often found near human habitations. Generally avoid dry & very open terrain. Various species found throughout Asia & SE Asia (see each species listed for its own range).

Activity and Behavior

Most species are mainly nocturnal & semi-burrowing, remaining hidden during the day within humus & leaf litter on forest floor, or under logs, stones or other debris. All (so far reported) are oviparous, & prey mainly on other snakes or various lizards (maybe rarely also on small mammals).

Venom Characteristics

Likely neurotoxic. Little known of venom. Few bites reported, possibly partly because there is usually no significant pain, swelling or other local symptoms at the site & time of a bite (even in cases where a person was fatally envenomated). One case of fatal envenoming by Calliophis macclellandii univirgatus reported from Nepal, & a few more by certain other spp. in this genus. No specific antivenom currently produced.

Calloselasma rhodostoma

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Agkistrodon rhodostoma, A. annamensis, Ancistrodon annamensis, A. rhodostoma, Calloselasma annamensis, C. rhodostoma annamensis, C. r. rhodostoma, Leiolepis rhodostoma, Trigonocephalus rhodostoma

Common Names: Malayan pit viper, Malaiische Mokassin-Grubenotter

Description

Large, heavy-bodied, smooth-scaled terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 60-80 cm long (max. 100 cm). Body gray, pale brown, or pale reddish brown, w/ 19-31 alternating dorsal dark, triangular markings w/ apices toward vertebral line & series of dark spots on flanks. Belly pinkish-white mottled w/ brown, head light brown, w/ dark postorbital stripe bordered above by a light stripe, snout pointed & up-turned.

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Causus rhombeatus (in part), Distichurus maculatus

Common Names: Spotted night adder, West African night adder

Description

Small, stout adder, w/ short head, adults usually about 50 cm long; body usually grayish, brownish, or olive green w/ darkish rhomboidal marks along dorsum. Dorsal scales velvety, weakly-keeled, in 17-22 midbody rows, sometimes w/ a dark vertebral line. Top of head & neck have a large, dark-edged forward-pointing V-shaped mark. Rarely w/ no dorsal markings in light colored, sandy areas. Snout pointed & up-turned. Belly white, cream or pinkish-grey, may have faint thin darker cross-bars.

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Habitat

Found in very wide variety of habitats in a band across western & central Africa; from forest to savanna to semi-desert. Present from senegal east to central Chad, southeast to Zaire, northeast into SE Sudan, & the low country & river gorges of SW Ethiopia, then southwest to northern Angola.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal but sometimes active in day or at dusk, & mainly terrestrial but may climb low bushes, sometimes basks in sun. When threatened, inflates body & hisses loudly, not agressive but will bite quickly if further molested. Oviparous w/ 6-20 eggs/ clutch reported. Prey mainly on available frogs, lizards, & sometimes small mammals or birds.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Mainly hemotoxic, w/ possible cytotoxic factors. Bites generally cause immediate local pain, at least limited local swelling, sometimes fever, & painful regional lymphadenopathy. Second most common cause of snake-bite mortality in Senegal. No known antivenom currently produced.

Causus resimus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Causus jacksoni, Heterophis resimus

Common Names: Green night adder, Grune Nachtotter

Description

Small, fairly stout-bodied adder, adults usually 30-60 cm long (max. 75 cm); body usually vivid green (rarely darker forest green, or brown, in some western specimens) w/ indistinct dorsal bars or chevrons, dorsal scales weakly-keeled, w/ a velvety sheen, in 19-21 midbody rows. Hidden scale edges vivid bluish, & show when body is inflated. Very pretty snake. Chin & throat yellow, belly yellowish, cream or pearly, tongue pale blue & black.

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Habitat

Found mainly in moist, warm, low-lying areas from sea level up to 2,000 m elevation. Also known from high grassland, wooded hills & valleys in western Kenya & Uganda; can be found along rivers that run through semi-desert, swamps, coastal scrubland, sugar cane plantations & rocky river gorges within its range. Fond of old quarries & borrow pits near roads, where shallow pools attract its amphibian prey. Overall distribution rather disjunct.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal but active in day & basks in sun. Mainly terrestrial but often climbs low bushes & swims rather often (& swims very well). Oviparous w/ 4-12 eggs/ clutch laid by captured specimens. Preys mainly on frogs & toads. Defensive behavior similar to that of related species of night adders. See Causus bilineatus.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but mainly hemotoxic w/ some cytotoxic fator(s). Envenomation usually results only in local pain, swelling, & sometimes lymphadenophy. Not considered lethal to humans. No known antivenom currently produced.

Causus rhombeatus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Sepedon rhombeatus

Common Names: Common night adder, Rhombic night adder, Krotenotter

Description

Small, stout-bodied adder w/ dark, forward-pointing V-shaped mark atop its head, adults usually 30-60 cm long (max. 90 cm); body varies from gray to olive to pinkish brown; patterned w/ gray, black, or brown rhombs, chevrons or spots (may be white-edged). Dorsal scales weakly-keeled, velvety, in 15-23 midbody rows. Belly usually gray, but may be cream or yellow. Sometimes w/ dark brown vertebral stripe. Has limited ability to change color from brownish to greenish, or vice versa.

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Habitat

Found mainly in open woodland, grassland, & savanna near streams, marshes, or other damp areas. Fairly wide-spread in south-central & southeastern Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, but spends much time basking during day &/or sheltered in trash piles, rock crevices, & other hiding places. Generally inoffensive & docile, seldom attempts to bite except under extreme provocation. When threatened, often flattens its body, hisses & "puffs", then may raise the front part of its body in an S-shaped loop. May flatten its neck, extend its tongue & move toward intruder (cobra-like). Oviparous (clutch size not reported, but probably usually <10 eggs.)

Venom Characteristics

Venom mildly cytotoxic (may also have a mild hemotoxic factor) & generally not very dangerous, but may cause acute discomfort. Envenomation usually results only in local pain, swelling, & lymphadenophy (rarely local tissue necrosis) at bite site. No reliable reports of fatalities. No known antivenom currently being produced.

Centruroides elegans

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Centruroides elegans edentulus, C. e. elegans, C. e. insularis, C. e. meisei, C. e. var. limpidus

Common Names: Mexican bark scorpion, "Scorpion of the coast"

Description

Medium-sized, moderately slender scorpion, adults usually 50-70 mm long (max. 80+ mm) w/ cauda extended. body usually pale yellow-brown, darker dorsally, w/ 4 dark longitudinal lines atop the cephalothorax & 2 dark lines & 1 anterior dark spot on top of each preabdominal segment. Looks very similar to C. exilicauda.

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Habitat

Mainly found in warm, relatively humid to seasonally dry places, mainly in coastal plains of the Pacific versant of central & southwestern Mexico, mainly from sea level to 100+ m elevation. Sometimes found in agricultural areas & near humans' habitations.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial, but can quickly climb rough walls, stones or plants. Usually hides within organic debris or under stones or logs (especially under loose bark) during the day. Avoid humans, but will sting quickly (then try to escape) if molested, stepped on, or trapped within clothing being donned. Sometimes come into human living areas. Ovoviviparous & mainly prey on locally available insects or arthropods.

Venom Characteristics

Contains mainly fairly potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors. Envenomation usually causes local pain, swelling, redness, & may cause discoloration. Systemic effects (often delayed 1-24 hrs.) can include dull ache, headache, nausea, muscle twitching, rapid heartbeat, or slurred speach. Has reportedly caused human deaths. Small children are usually more severely affected than adults.

Centruroides exilicauda

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Centruroides gertschi, C. sculpturatus, C. s. gertschi

Common Names: Bark scorpion, sculptured scorpion (Gertschi form), deadly sculptured scorpion

Description

Medium-sized, moderately slender scorpion, adults usually no more than 7.5 cm long w/ tail fully extended. Body usually pale yellowish to medium-dark brown w/ varying patterns of longitudinal dorsal darker brown or grayish stripes or blotches. At least 4 different-looking "forms" (possibly subspecies) have been recognized. Tail (post-abdomen) moderately slender, pincers (pedipalps) not unusually large or dark.

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Habitat

Mainly found in warm, relatively dry areas, usually w/ sandy soil & lots of loose bark, leaves or crevices in which they hide. Mainly limited to arid regions of southwestern U.S. & northern Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, usually hide above ground but under loose bark, rocks, leaves, sticks or other debris during daytime. Prey mainly on available insects & other arthropods. Avoid humans unless cornered, stepped on, or brushed against (usually while hunting at night, or when trapped in clothing being donned). They will sting quickly & then try to escape. Often come into houses. Ovoviviparous, usually >20 per "litter," young may ride on mother's back until 2nd instar.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic. A sting usually causes a painful local reaction w/ reddening, swelling & discomfort (often local discoloration). It may also cause various systemic effects distant from the sting site, like progressive numbness, swelling, spreading of dull pain, muscle twitching, nausea, rapid heartbeat, slurred speach, etc. The most commonly reported cause of human deaths from stings by this species is cardiac failure.

Centruroides infamatus

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Centruroides infamatus infamatus, C. i. ornatus

Common Names: Mexican bark scorpion

Description

Medium-sized, relatively slender scorpions, adults seldom >70 mm long. Body yellowish-brown to medium-brown, w/ variable darker blotches & 2 rather broad longitudinal dark stripes on dorsum of cephalothorax. Legs pale-brown to yellow-brown. Pincers moderately long & thin w/ dark tips & dark sting tip.

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Habitat

Not well characterized, but mainly reported from warm, relatively dry or seasonally dry sites, usually w/ sandy soil w/ considerable amounts of organic debris built up beneath scattered vegetation (but sometimes in rocky areas, too). Limited mainly to moderate elevations in central & southwestern Mexico, range overlaps that of C. suffusus.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial, but can climb any rough surface very well. Usually hide within or under organic debris or crevices under rocks or logs (especially under loose bark) during the day. Ovoviviparous, & prey mainly on locally available insects or arthropods. Usually avoid humans & large animals, unless molested, stepped on or trapped within clothing being donned. Then they will sting quickly & try to escape.

Venom Characteristics

Contains mainly potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors. Stings usually (mainly) cause local pain, swelling, redness & often discoloration, but serious envenomation & deaths of humans have also been reported. Systemic symptoms, when they occur, are often very similar to those caused by the venom of C. exilicauda.

Centruroides limpidus

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Centruroides limpidus limpidus, C. l. tecomanus

Common Names: Mexican bark scorpion

Description

Medium to large-sized scorpion, adults usually about 50-60 mm long, but often reach 70+ mm. Body usually medium yellowish-brown, cephalothorax darker dorsally, w/ 4 dark longitudinal dorsal lines, & having a dark spot between those lines at both the front & back edge of each tergite. Legs & postabdomen lighter brownish, pincers relatively elongated & narrow w/ dark tips, sting dark at tip.

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Habitat

Mainly found in margins of dry to wet forest clearings in lower elevations in central & southern Mexico. Often numerous in crevices of rough adobe walls of peasants' homes & along junctures of such walls & thatched rooves, & similar habitats. May be present in Nicaragua, but not documented there yet.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial, but climbs very well. Usually hides under bark, leaves or other organic debris during the day. Preys mainly on insects & other arthropods, sometimes cannibalistic. Ovoviviparous, typically >20 young per "litter".

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors, similar to that of C. suffusus. Like other members of this genus, these scorpions tend to sting quickly, then try to escape, if brushed against, stepped on, or trapped in clothing being donned. This species has caused a significant number of human fatalities within its range.

Centruroides noxius

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Scorpion of Nayarit, Mexican bark scorpion

Description

Small scorpion, adults seldom 50 mm long. Cephalothorax & abdomen uniformly dark, often w/ lateral margins of pre-abdominal tergites lighter (brownish to dark-yellowish). Body sometimes w/ a reddish tinge. No obvious stripes. Subaculear tooth on telson very strongly developed.

Habitat

Mainly found in dry to arid sites in areas of limited vegetation in sandy & rocky soil. Sometimes found near human habitations. Found mainly on the Pacific slopes of west-central Mexico (mainly Nayarit state, but also from Jalisco & Sinaloa), reported from near sea level to above 500 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, usually hides under leaf litter & debris (sometimes under loose bark of trees or bushes) in daytime. Mainly terrestrial, but sometimes climbs rough surfaces. Ovoviviparous, litter numbers not reported (probably <20 young/ litter). Prey mainly on locally available insects & other arthropods.

Venom Characteristics

Includes potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors. Has been reported to cause serious human envenomations, including some deaths. Stings usually due to a human brushing against, stepping on, or trapping one of these scorpions in clothing being donned.

Centruroides spp.

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Scorpio spp. (in part), Centrurus spp. (in part), Rhopalurus spp. (in part). [ Note: There are currently 50+ named species recognized in this genus, but only about 6 spp. are of medical importance (see medically important spp. addressed separately, individually).]

Common Names: Bark scorpions, house scorpions, common scorpions, "sculptured" scorpions

Description

Medium to large-sized, moderately-slender scorpions, adults usually 50-80 mm long (max. 110+ mm; varies by spp.). Body usually pale yellowish to medium-brown (some spp. dark brown), w/ varying patterns of darker gray or brownish dorsal stripes or blotches. Tail (postabdomen) rather slender, pincers rather slender & not very robust (= usually thin), legs usually pale yellow-brown. Most spp. are sexually dimorphic w/ thinner, longer males & stouter, shorter females.

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Habitat

Found mainly in warm, relatively dry areas, usually w/ sandy soil & lots of loose bark (e.g. on or under logs), leaves, surface debris or crevices in which to hide. Most spp. limited to arid or semi-arid regions of the southwestern U.S., Mexico, Central America, the Antilles, &/or northern South America.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, usually hide in crevices or under bark or debris by day, often come into houses. Prey mainly on available insects & other arthropods. Avoid humans unless cornered, stepped on or brushed against (usually while hunting at night or if trapped in clothing being donned), then sting quickly & try to escape. Ovoviviparous, >20 per "litter," young may ride on mother's back until 2nd instar. Whole body fluoresces (usually yellowish-green) in certain wavelengths of UV light.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, w/ cytotoxic factors in some spp. Potency varies w/ different spp. A sting (envenomation) usually causes local pain, swelling, redness & discomfort (may be delayed 1-24 hrs.); sometimes spreads & includes numbness. Systemic effects may include muscle twitching, nausea, rapid heartbeat, slurred speach, sweating, coma & death (for some spp.). Cardiac failure reportedly causes most human deaths. Venom effects more severe in children than adults.

Centruroides suffusus

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Centruroides suffusus chiaravigli, C. s. suffusus

Common Names: Durango scorpion, Mexican bark scorpion, Alacran de Durango

Description

Medium to large-sized scorpion, adults usually 50-65 mm long (max. 85+ mm). Body usually yellowish to light-brown (rarely reddish-brown), w/ 2 dark longitudinal stripes on pre-abdominal tergites. Males' postabdomen is 8.5X the length of cephalothorax; 5th caudal segment is 4.25-4.75X its own width; Vesicle of telson is >1.78X as long as the aculeus (sting tip).

Habitat

Mainly found in moderately dry, seasonally dry, or semi-arid sites, at a range of elevations (from near sea level to above 1,500 m), mainly in west-central Mexico. Often found near cultivated sites & human homes within its range.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial (but climbs well). Usually hides during the day under available organic debris, bark, stones, or in various natural (or artificial) crevices. Mainly preys on whatever insects or arthropods are locally available, sometimes cannibalistic. Ovoviviparous, but litter size quite variable (5-30+ have been reported).

Venom Characteristics

Has potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors. Will sting quickly then try to escape, if disturbed, stepped on, or if trapped inside clothing items being donned. Has a reputation for causing numerous serious envenomations & deaths of humans each year (significantly fewer when effective antivenom is available) within its range.

Cerastes cerastes

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Aspis cerastes, Cerastes cerastes cerastes, C. c. hoofieni, C. c. karlhartli, C. c. mutila, C. cornutus, Coluber cerastes

Common Names: Desert horned viper, Hornviper

Description

Medium-sized, moderately stout-bodied viper, tail short, adults usually 50-60 cm long (max. 90 cm); body generally yellowish, yellowish-brown, pale-gray, pinkish, or pale-brown, w/ rows of dark spots along back. Belly whitish. May have long spine-like horn above each eye.

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Habitat

Found mainly in deserts where there are rock outcroppings & fine sand, often in very arid places; however, may be found near oases. Limited mainly to northern Africa & the Middle East.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (semi-fossorial). Can make itself almost invisible by wriggling down into loose sand. Often hides in rodent holes & under stones. When irritated, rubs inflated loops of body together to make a "rasping hiss." Can strike quickly if disturbed.

Venom Characteristics

Venom primarily hemotoxic. Local symptoms include edema, redness, internal hemorrhage, & areas of gangrene. Venom has coagulant activities at low concentrations, anticoagulant activities at high concentrations. Fatalities rare but have been documented.

Cerastes gasperettii

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Aspis cerastes (in part), Cerastes cerastes (in part), C. c. cerastes (in part), C. c. gasperettii, Cerastes gasperettii gasperettii, C. cornutus (in part), C. g. mendelssohni, Cerastes cerastes gasperetti, Vipera cerastes (in part)

Common Names: Gasperetti’s horned desert viper, Arabian horned viper

Description

Small to medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied viper, adults usually 30-60 cm long (max. 85 cm); body usually yellowish, yellowish-brown, pale-gray, pinkish, or pale-brown w/ rows of dark spots along back. Belly whitish. Tip of tail may be black. May have long spine-like horn (at least prominent brow ridge) above each eye.

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Habitat

Found mainly in deserts w/ rock outcroppings & fine sand, often in very arid places; however, may be found near oases. Limited to northeastern Africa & the Middle East.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (semi-fossorial). Can make itself almost invisible by wriggling down into loose sand. Often hides in rodent burrows & under stones. When aggitated, rubs inflated loops of its body together to make a "rasping hiss." Can strike quickly if disturbed.

Venom Characteristics

Venom primarily hemotoxic. Local symptoms may include pain, edema, redness; may have hematoma at site of bite & regional lymphadenopathy. No human fatalities reported (at least not documented), so far. No known antivenom currently produced.

Cerastes vipera

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Aspis vipera, Cerastes aegyptiacus, C. vipera, Coluber vipera (in part), Vipera aegyptiaca, V. avicennae, V. cerastes (in part)

Common Names: Sahara sand viper, Sahara desert viper, Avicennaviper

Description

Small, moderately heavy-bodied viper, adults usually 20-35 cm long (max. 48 cm); body generally yellowish, gray, or brown, w/ row of dark spots along back. Head lacks supra-orbital "horns."

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Habitat

Mainly found in sand dunes, loose sand, & desert shrub from sea level up to about 300 m elevation. Limited to northern Africa & parts of the Middle East.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, oviparous, mainly nocturnal; usually spends day buried in sand at base of scrub. Not usually aggressive. When provoked, gathers body into coil & rubs its sides together to produce a rasping or "hissing" noise.

Venom Characteristics

Venom contains mainly mild cytotoxic & neurotoxic components. Bites reportedly painful, but usually not serious.

Cerrophidion barbouri

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Agkistrodon browni, Bothrops barbouri, Porthidium barbouri, Trimeresurus barbouri

Common Names: Barbour’s montane pitviper, nauyaca, vibora colorado, vibora sorda

Description

Small, moderately stout, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 30-40 cm long (max. 51 cm). Body usually reddish-brown, w/ a darker wavy middorsal stripe, 25-28 dark-brown blotches along sides, & 17-19 midbody dorsal scale rows. Has dark-brown post-ocular stripe. Dorsal pattern becomes obscured w/ age. Belly slightly lighter w/ irregular, slightly-darker blotches along sides. Juveniles usually pale-brown to greenish-brown above, w/ sharper dorsal pattern & chartreuse tail.

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Habitat

Most commonly found in pine-oak & cloud forest at 2,400-3,300 m elevation, in the mountains of Guerreo, Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, sometimes climb onto bushes or stumps, often hide under logs, rocks, or debris. Mainly diurnal, very active, fast-moving, often found along forest edges or in clearings; usually quick to retreat when disturbed. Ovoviviparous w/ at least one observed litter of 6 young. Prey mainly on available arthropods, small mammals, & other reptiles (& sometimes birds).

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but mainly hemotoxic w/ additional myotoxic factors. Usual symptoms of envenomation may include: local pain & swelling, general itching, headache, nausea, & light-headedness. No confirmed human deaths, so far, due to envenomation by this species. No known antivenom currently produced.

Cerrophidion godmani

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops godmani, Bothriechis godmani, B. trianguligera, Lachesis godmani, Porthidium godmani, Trimeresurus godmani

Common Names: Engl.: Godman's montane pitviper, Ger.: Godman-Berggrubenotter, Costa Riac: borot kabi, dudaban, toboba de altura, Guatemala: cantil frijolillo, sheta, tamagas, Honduras: timbo chingo, tamagas cafe, Mexico: nauyaca del frio, Nicaragua: toboa oscura, toboita

Description

Small, moderately-stout, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 46-50 cm long (max. 82 cm); colors & patterns quite variable, body usually brown, reddish-brown, grayish-brown to nearly orange; dark brown blotches often merge to form a zigzag dorsal stripe, 21 midbody dorsal scale rows, dark postorbital stripe, venter pale yellow to orange w/ no mottling, darker toward tail.

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Habitat

Found in a wide range of low montane wet forest & cloud forest, lower montane dry forest, largely pin oak; & high montane forest & meadow. Occurs at 1,400-3,491 m elevation. Limited to higher elevations of parts of southeastern Mexico & Central America.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, & mainly diurnal, often seen crawling or coiled along forest paths. May rarely climb up onto a log or stump, but usually found beside or under logs, rocks, or other large pieces of debris. Can move very rapidly, usually avoids humans, but will strike quickly if disturbed. Ovoviviparous w/ 2-12 young/ litter observed for captured specimens. Prey on a variety of available arthropods, small mammals, reptiles (mainly lizards), salamanders, & sometimes birds.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Mainly hemotoxic, w/ potent myotoxic & proteolytic factors. Symptoms of envenomation of humans may include: intense local pain, extensive local swelling (may involve whole limb), widespread itching, fever, headache, nausea & light-headedness (to the point of collapse in one observed case). Few bites & no fatalities of humans reported for this species.

Cerrophidion petlalcalensis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Cerrophidion petlalcalense

Common Names: Petlalcala montane pitviper

Description

Small, fairly stout-bodied, montane pitviper, adults usually 30-40 cm long (max. 46+ cm). Body usually dark reddish-brown to gray-brown dorsally, w/ 21-32 darker-brown lateral blotches, each narrowly white-edged, forming a zigzag pattern along vertebral line, w/ 19 midbody dorsal scale rows. Has dark-brown postorbital stripe. Belly dark-brown w/ 1-2 pale marks (usually near middle), tail may have up to 5 thin white crossbands dorsally & is pale yellow to whitish below.

Habitat

Found mainly in pine-oak forest, at 2,100-2,300 m elevation in western Veracruz state, eastern Mexico. Known only from the type locality on Cerro de Petlalcala, Municipio San Andres Tenejapan.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known. Mainly diurnal & terrestrial (maybe semi-fossorial). Basks in sun & can move very rapidly. Usually avoid humans, but will strike quickly if cornered & molested. Ovoviviparous, litter size not reported. Prey on various available arthropods, small mammals, lizards, salamanders, & occasionally small birds. For details of behavior of a closely-related species, See Cerrophidion godmani.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic, possibly also w/ myotoxic factors. Humans rarely bitten by this species, & no confirmed serious envenomations or fatalities due to its bites. For symptoms typical of envenomation by a closely-related species, See Cerrophidion godmani.

Cerrophidion tzotzilorum

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops tzotzilorum, Porthidium tzotzilorum

Common Names: Tzotzil montane pit viper

Description

Small, moderately stout-bodied, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually <50 cm long; body color variable, including dark-gray, dark grayish-brown, or rust. Usually w/ a series of many dark-brown oval to rhomboid blotches dorsally, often fused into a zigzag middorsal line. Has dark postorbital stripe (narrowly bordered by white) & 19-23 midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly light to medium brown, often w/ irregular darker blotches (usually become darker & more extensive toward tail).

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Habitat

Most commonly found in humid, but seasonally dry, pine-oak forests, w/ tall pines & epiphyte-laden older (mature) oaks, at 2,000-2,500 m elevation. Most often found under logs, rocks or large pieces of debris. Limited to Chiapas, Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Very secretive, apparently diurnal. Mainly terrestrial, possibly (reportedly almost completely) fossorial. Encountered most frequently under logs, rocks, &/or larger pieces of debris within its typical habitat. Probably ovoviviparous (litter size not known), & probably preys on arthropods, small mammals (e.g., shrews), & lizards available within its habitat.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic, possibly w/ myotoxic factors. Seldom encountered by humans, & no well-documented bites, serious envenomations, or fatalities of humans due to this species. No known antivenom currently produced. For more detailed information about the venom of a closely-related species, & its effects in cases of human envenomations, See Cerrophidion godmani.

Chironex fleckeri

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Identification

Family: Chirodropidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Box jellyfish, sea wasp, indringa, marine stinger

Description

Semi-transparent bluish "box-shaped" jellyfish w/ four "arms" (pedalia) at the base of its main body (bell), which in full-grown individuals is about 30 cm (1 ft.) in diameter & 20 cm high. Bundles of up to 15 thick tentacles, each nearly covered w/ stinging cells (nematocysts), are inserted on each pedalium. Each tentacle may be extended to 3 m (10 ft.) long or retracted to 75 cm (about 2.5 ft.) long.

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Habitat

Found only in marine waters of the southwestern Pacific Ocean, mainly along the northern & eastern coasts of Australia (Northern Territory, northern Queensland), & from waters off New Guinea, Malaysia, Borneo, & certain other Southwest Pacific islands.

Activity and Behavior

These free-swimming jellyfish (medusae) mainly stay in fairly shallow (often very shallow; to less than 65 cm) coastal marine waters above sandy bottoms. They move actively via "jet propulsion" by rhythmically contracting their bell. They feed by engulfing various prey (often small fish) which have been paralyzed by their nematocysts. They tend to avoid areas directly above shallow coral reefs. Most active & numerous near shores during annual "stinger season" (1 Oct.-1 Jun.).

Venom Characteristics

Contains potent cytotoxic (affecting membranes), cardiotoxic, & possibly also neurotoxic proteins. Contact w/ a tentacle usually causes intense local pain, sometimes a spreading numbness, & local tissue necrosis. Death usually due to cardiac problems, sometimes to anaphylactic shock; & may occur within 24 hrs in severe stinging cases. Typical signs include urticarial wheales at each nematocyst sting site. Victims often become cyanotic soon after being seriously stung.

Chiropsalmus quadrigatus

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Identification

Family: Chirodropidae

Scientific Names: Chiropsalmus sp. [ Note: At least three additional species in this genus; C. quadrumanus, C. zygonema, & an un-named Australian coastal species called the "Gove Jellyfish" all cause many painful stings of fishermen & swimmers every year, NONE of those 3 has been documented to have caused any human deaths, so far.]

Common Names: Box jellyfish, fire medusa, indringa, habukurage (in Japan), marine stinger (causes "Irukandji syndrome")

Description

Semi-transparent bluish, "box-shaped" jellyfish w/ 4 "arms" (pedalia) at the base of the main body (bell), which when full-grown is about the size of a grapefruit. Bundles of up to 15 tentacles, each covered w/ stinging cells (nematocysts), are inserted on each pedalium. Each tentacle may be extended to 3 m (10 ft.) long or retracted to about 75 cm (about 2.5 ft.) long.

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Habitat

Found mainly (only) in marine waters in the western Pacific Ocean, from Australia to the Philippines. Appear to travel toward mainland shores during calm weather on a rising tide. Often found in river mouths in shallow (<1 ft. deep) water above sandy bottoms. Have been reported very rarely from the Caribbean, but usually much too rare there to pose a common human health threat.

Activity and Behavior

The free-swimming medusae mainly stay in fairly shallow water (max. 20 m deep) over sandy bottoms, often near mouth of a river or creek. Prey on (engulf) various fish or crustaceans paralyzed by their nematocysts. Move very actively (up to 5 mph) via "jet propulsion" by rhythmic contraction of their bell. Tend to avoid areas directly above shallow coral reefs.

Venom Characteristics

Includes potent cytotoxins (especially affecting membranes), cardiotoxins & neurotoxins. Contact w/ a tentacle usually causes intense pain, numbness, local urticarial wheals at each sting site, & can stop a human's heart in <30 sec. Some victims have had limited local pain, then unconsciousness (even coma) in <24 hrs. Human death is usually due to heart stoppage or anaphylactic shock.

Conus geographus

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Identification

Family: Conidae

Scientific Names: Rollus geographus [Note: This is the most lethal species (to humans) of >400 currently named spp. in this genus. At least 8 spp. have been reported to cause human fatalities. All 8 are found mainly in shallow marine sites w/ sandy or rubble-coated bottoms.]

Common Names: Geographer cone, anboina, cone shell

Description

Marine snail w/ cone-shaped shell, usually cream colored w/ irregular blotches of parallel thin dark-brown stripes & small rings on most of shell's surface. When mature, usually 4-6 in. (10-15 cm) long x 2-4 in. (5-10 cm) diameter at large end. A reddish tube (siphon), often w/ dark ring at its end, & whitish root-like probe (proboscis) are protruded through the pointed (front) end of the shell. The foot is everted through the long ventral opening & used to crawl, dig, etc.

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Habitat

Mainly found in shallow marine waters down to 100+ ft. (30+ m) deep, & mainly in tropics or subtropics, sometimes wash up onto beaches. Mainly associated w/ coral reefs & near-shore shallows throughout most of the south Pacific & Indian Oceans (Polynesia to East Africa). Most dangerous species (to humans) are usually found in shallow (e.g., <20 ft. deep), fairly clear waters w/ sandy or rubble bottoms.

Activity and Behavior

Usually burrow in bottom debris or sand by day & hunt by night. This species preys mainly on fish (others on marine invertebrates or worms) by harpooning (stinging) prey w/ hollow radular tooth, injecting potent paralytic venom, then consuming body of victim. Many spp. lay egg masses on seaweed or projecting corals. Proboscis is extended & contact w/ prey triggers ejection of tooth into victim. Prey usually surrounded by proboscis & partly digested before being passed into snail's main body.

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxins, may have 4 different categories of poisonous factors (conitoxins). Serious & painful envenomations (sometimes fatal) usually occur when swimmers (waders) pick up shells w/ live snails still inside. Human death usually due to respiratory or cardiac stoppage (blockage of nerve signals to heart &/or diaphragm).

Conus textile

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Identification

Family: Conidae

Scientific Names: Darioconus textile [Note: This species has one of the most attractive-looking shells (among >400 named spp. in this genus), & is most common in very shallow water. Humans very often notice & pick these up w/ live snails still inside.]

Common Names: Cloth-of-gold cone, textile cone, woven cone, tagayasanminashi, cone shell

Description

Marine snail w/ cone-shaped shell, usually cream patterned w/ goldish blotches (w/ darker brown cross-stripes) interspersed w/ irregular (mainly triangular) reddish-brown marks. Mature specimens usually 3-4 in. (7.5-10 cm) long x 1.5-2 in. (3-5 cm) diameter at large end. Tube-like siphon whitish w/ reddish ring around tip & wide (5+ mm wide) blackish band about 1 cm back from tip. Proboscis cream to pinkish. Foot used to move & dig, is everted through long ventral slot.

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Habitat

Mainly found in relatively shallow near-shore fairly clear marine waters w/ sandy bottom (seldom >20 ft. deep). mainly limited to tropical or subtropical regions of the Indian & southern Pacific Oceans (from Polynesia to the Red Sea). Sometimes wash up onto beaches.

Activity and Behavior

Usually burrow into loose sand or bottom debris during day, hunt at night. This species preys mainly on other marine snails & mulloscs (rarely on small fish or worms). They harpoon (sting) prey w/ 1-cm. long hollow radular tooth, through which they inject venom, then engulf paralyzed prey w/ their proboscis. Often lay egg masses on seaweed or coral projections. Large specimens of this species can project proboscis >2.5 cm (1 in.).

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin, have up to 4 categories of conotoxins. Serious envenomations (sometimes fatal) usually occur when a swimmer (wader) picks up a shell w/ the live snail still inside. Human death is usually due to the venom blocking nerve signals to the heart &/or diaphragm, stopping blood flow &/or breathing. Symptoms usually include immediate local pain, tingling, difficulty speaking, slowed breathing, progressive hypotension, lethargy, & coma.

Crotalus adamanteus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus durissus (in part)

Common Names: Engl.: Eastern diamondback rattlesnake, Florida diamondback rattlesnake, water rattlesnake, Ger.: Diamant-Klapperschlange

Description

Heavy-bodied terrestrial pitviper, largest species of rattlesnakes, adults usually 1.2-2.0 m long (max. 2.51 m); body brownish, brownish-yellow, olive or brownish-gray; patterned w/ 24-35 dorsal dark brown to black diamonds, each outlined w/ whitish scales & lighter in the center; 25-31 midbody dorsal scale rows, dark post ocular stripe, belly yellowish or cream w/ dark mottling mainly along sides.

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Habitat

Found mainly on lowland coastal plains, up to about 500 m elevation; often along streams & in swamps from southeastern North Carolina south through southern Georgia & most of Florida, then west through southern Alabama & Mississippi to southeastern Louisiana.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, but often bask in sunlight, & sometimes ambush (occasionally actively hunt) prey in the daytime. Usually docile, vibrate tail rapidly ("rattle") but can strike quickly if disturbed.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Relatively long fangs & large venom reservoirs can lead to injection of large amounts of venom during a single bite. Occasionally cause human fatalities, especially in remote sites or w/ delayed treatment.

Crotalus aquilus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus lugubris, C. triseriatus, C. t. aquilus, C. t. quadrangularis, C. t. triseriatus

Common Names: Queretaran dusky rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel

Description

Small to medium-sized, heavy-bodied terrestrial pitviper, adults usually <50 cm long (max. 67.8 cm); body variable, pale to dark brown, greenish, to gray, patterned w/ 21-41 darker quadrangular dorsal blotches, dark postocular stripe; venter yellowish, pinkish or very pale gray, w/ dark brown or gray mottling (heavier toward tail). Has a pair of upper front folding fangs.

Habitat

Found mainly in open grassy & usually rocky habitats north of the Transverse Volcanic Cordillera in central Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal, but basks in the sun; preys mainly on small animals, birds, etc. Coils body & vibrates tail ("rattles") when threatened. Generally slow moving, but can strike very quickly if disturbed or surprized. Ovoviviparous w/ avg. of about 7 young/ litter.

Venom Characteristics

Not very well known, but mainly hemotoxic, possibly w/ myotoxic (proteolytic) factors. Potentially lethal to humans, but not well documented.

Crotalus atrox

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona atrox var. sonoriensis, Crotalus adamanteus atrox, C. a. atrox, C. cinereous, C. confluentus, C. a. sonoriensis, C. sonoriensis

Common Names: Engl.: Western diamondback rattlesnake, coon-tail rattler, Spanish (local names): vibora de cascabel, vibora serrana, Ger.: Texas-Klapperschlange

Description

Large, heavy-bodied, terrestrial pitviper, adults avg. 1.0-2.1 m long (max. 2.3+ m); largest rattlesnake in its range. Body usually gray-brown & dusty-looking; may be pinkish, yellowish, red, or chalky-white (& resembling colors of local soils); w/ 24-45 dorsal dark gray-brown to brown blotches (diamond-like toward tail). Head usually w/ dark postorbital stripes, not reaching corner of head. Belly pale (whitish). Tail pale w/ 2-8 (usually 4-6) black bands, usually not complete below.

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Habitat

Most common in seasonally dry to semi-arid lowlands; other habitats include deserts, steep rocky hillsides, thorn forest, & tropical deciduous forest in the south. Found up to 2,450 m, but most common at <1,500 m elevation. Found in Southwestern U.S from California east to Arkansas & southward into Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, activity more temperature-dependent than light-dependent; mainly nocturnal during warmer periods, diurnal during cooler periods. Quick to escape (move away) from humans, it will defend itself w/ a large supply of potent venom if threatened or if cornered. Prey mainly on available small to medium-sized mammals, birds, etc.

Venom Characteristics

Primarily hemotoxic; venom also has potent necrotic (tissue-destroying) & myotoxic factors. In northern Mexico, responsible for more human deaths than any other snake & responsible for the most snake-bite casualties annually in North America.

Crotalus basiliscus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus basilisca, C. basiliscus basiliscus, C. terrificus, C. t. basiliscus

Common Names: Mexican west coast rattlesnake, saye, tepocolcoatl, teuhtlacozauhqi, vibora de cascabel

Description

Large, heavy-bodied, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 1.0-1.5 m long (max. 2.05 m); body pale green, pale grayish-green, or pale brown; juveniles reddish-brown to brown; w/ a series of dark, diamond-shaped dorsal blotches, usually edged w/ white; 24-29 (usually 27) midbody dorsal scale rows. Head pale above, tail gray w/ 5-12 darker bands; belly whitish, yellowish or cream anteriorly (suffused w/ gray), darker posteriorly w/ gray mottling or blotches.

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Habitat

Most common in forested areas, including thorn forest, at elevations of 600 m in the north to 2,400 m in the south. Limited to Mexico (Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal; may bask in early morning. Most active during rainy periods. Quickly defends itself if threatened, & can strike w/ great speed. Assumes defensive posture w/ the upper one-third of body raised & partly coiled in an "S-shape." Ovoviviparous w/ 24-35 young/ litter reported. Preys mainly on available mammals & lizards (rarely, birds or invertebrates).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factor(s). Usually very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurred. Humans are sometimes envenomated by this species, but reported fatalities are rare.

Crotalus catalinensis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Santa Catalina Island rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel, Santa-Catalina-Klapperschlange

Description

Small, fairly slender, semi-arboreal pitviper, adults usually <70 cm long; body usually tan to pale gray-brown w/ few dark speckles, w/ a series of 26-41 medium-brown dorsal blotches outlined in dark brown to black, each edged w/ thin whitish lines, 25 midbody dorsal scale rows, post orbital stripe, bordered above & below by thin white lines; w/ only a one-segmented, dark-colored rattle (lost & replaced at each molt). Belly pale, tail gray w/ 5-6 black dorsal crossbands.

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Habitat

Most common in rocky desert areas w/ brush & cacti. Found only on Santa Catalina Island in the Gulf of California, just off the east coast of Baja California.

Activity and Behavior

Semi-arboreal, & mainly nocturnal, but often active in daytime. Usually not aggressive & will retreat if possible. Has been reported to climb bushes & other vegetation to a height of >1 m. Ovoviviparous w/ litter size not reported (probably <10 young/ litter). Prey mainly on birds, mice & lizards endemic to its habitat (that island).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known; reportedly has a low venom yield. Probably mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factors. May be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of swelling & discoloration of tissue. Bites & envenomations of humans occur infrequently. No well-documented resultant human deaths have been reported.

Crotalus cerastes

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Aechmophrys cerastes, Caudisona cerastes, Crotalus cerastes cerastes, C. c. cercobombus, C. c. laterorepens [Note: Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus & Crotalus cerastes laterorepens have been reported to have successfully hybridized in captivity.]

Common Names: Sidewinder, awa'ala, chicotera, tl'iish, bicho'hi', vibora cornuda, vibora de cascabel, seitenwinder, Gehornte Klapperschlange

Description

Small, slender, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 50-80 cm long (max. 82 cm); only Mexican rattlesnake w/ raised, horn-like scales above each eye. Body cream, buff, tan, yellowish-brown, pink, or ash-gray; darker dorsal sub-rhombic or sub-eliptical blotches, supraocular scales produced into a hornlike projection above each eye, belly whitish or yellowish w/ dark markings, mainly laterally, tail has dark rings.

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Habitat

Found most commonly in dry, wind-blown sandy areas, desert sand dunes, & rocky hillsides w/ some mesquite or shrubs; up to 1,850 m elevation. Found in the southwestern U.S. (SE California, S Nevada, SW Arizona, SW Utah), & northwestern Mexico (Baja California Norte, NW Sonora).

Activity and Behavior

Mostly terrestrial & nocturnal; often shelters in rodent burrows or ditches. Usually inoffensive, but if threatened, w/ no escape route, usually will coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, strikes quickly & repeatedly. Reported to climb >30 cm up into creosote bushes. Moves rapidly by lateral looping (sidewinding) over fine sand. Ovoviviparous w/ 7-18 young/ litter, mainly eats available lizards, mammals & birds.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known; reportedly has a small venom yield, probably mainly hemotoxic; may also contain potent tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be very painful at the bite site with rapid progression of swelling & tissue necrosis. Envenomation of humans uncommon, human fatalities not well documented, so far.

Crotalus durissus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: CURRENT SUBSPECIES: Crotalus durissus cascavella, C. d. collilineatus, C. d. cumanensis, C. d. durissus, C. d. terrificus, C. d. marajoensis, C. d. maricelae, C. d. ruruima, C. d. trigonicus, C. d. unicolor, C. d. vergandis; OTHER NAMES: Crotalus durissus dryinus, C. d. pifanorum, C. d. trigonicus, (PLUS > 10 more older names)

Common Names: South American rattlesnake, Neotropical rattlesnake, cascabel, cascabela, vibora de cascabel, caiguara, apat, boiquira, colebre, cascabel chonono, sak-kah-sak, amaru, palla, ma 'ara, maraca, mboi'-chini, mbaraka, (PLUS more than 40 more variation of local names in various languages & dialects).

Description

Large, stout, rattlesnake, adults usually 1.0-1.6 m long; w/ prominent spinal ridge, most evident on front part of the body. Body color & pattern extremely variable; nearly all specimens w/ 18-32 darker dorsal diamond or rhombic blotches, & 25-33 (usually 27) midbody dorsal scale rows. Head usually w/ dark-brown bar across top & dark postorbital stripe. Belly whitish, yellowish or buff, often w/ pale gray mottling (darker toward tail). Tail gray, often w/ vague darker crossbands.

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Habitat

Mainly in semi-arid regions & drier openings in more humid environments. Not found in rainforest. Most common at <700 m elevation, has been found at elevations up to 1,000 m in Costa Rica, 2,000 m in Mexico and Colombia, 2,500 in Venezuela. This species is the widest-spread geographically, of all rattlesnakes.

Activity and Behavior

Most active during twilight & early morning hours. Will move away from humans if allowed to do so, but assumes a defensive coil & strikes if cornered or startled. In the defensive position, it raises its head & front one-third of the body in a vertical S-shaped loop. Ovovivivparous w/ 4-8 young/ litter reported. Preys mainly on certain lizards, birds & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Possibly the most dangerous snake in the region; both hemotoxic & neurotoxic components, varying among the subspecies. Mainly hemotoxic in Mexican & Central American races; venom of C. d. terrificus in South America has myotoxic & neurotoxic factors.

Crotalus durissus terrificus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: See "C. durissus".

Common Names: See "C. durissus".

Description

This subspecies (1 of 11) is differentiated from others mainly by its relatively dark-brown background body color; & by its body pattern, w/ large dorsal (& smaller lateral) diamond-shaped rhombs, each outlined by light-brown scales. Tips of dorsal & lateral dark rhombs often nearly touch (separated only by a row of light-brown scales). Tail is nearly all black, w/ rattles all light yellow-brown. For details of overall species characters, See Crotalus durissus.

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Habitat

For general habitat information, See Crotalus durissus. This subspecies is found only in central & southern South America; including portions of northern Argentina, Bolivia, southern Brazil, southeastern Peru, Paraguay, & Uruguay.

Activity and Behavior

See Crotalus durissus.

Venom Characteristics

See Crotalus durissus. This subspecies apparently often has strong myotoxic & possibly also neurotoxic factors in its venom & MAY require very specific antivenoms, along w/ careful observation & life support for victims.

Crotalus enyo

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona enyo, Crotalus confluentus enyo, C. enyo cerralvensis, C. e. enyo, C. e. fulvus, C. oregonus var. enyo

Common Names: Baja California rattlesnake, lower California rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel

Description

Medium-sized, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 89 cm). Head relatively small & narrow w/ rather large eyes. Color & pattern variable, usually punctuated w/ gray & blending in well w/ local soil colors. Usually dark-brown, tan, gray-brown, or silvery-brown (paler toward tail), w/ 28-42 reddish to yellow-brown dorsal blotches (black-edged), 23-27 midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly cream or buff, mottled w/ darker gray or brown. Tail w/ 4-8 darker rings on grayish, proximal rattle usually black.

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Habitat

Found most commonly in desert areas; mainly in rocky terrain sparsely covered w/ brush & cacti, in western Mexico, mainly the Baja California peninsula & nearby islands.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known. Mainly nocturnal, terrestrial, & ovoviviparous (2 observed litters w/ 7 young each). If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, will coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Feed on lizards (mainly juveniles), small mice (mainly adults), & invertebrates (e.g., centipedes).

Venom Characteristics

Not much known; probably mainly hemotoxic but w/ tissue-necrotic factors. May be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurred. Bites & significant envenomations, of humans occur occasionally, but no well-documented human deaths due to this species.

Crotalus horridus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona horrida, Crotalus atricaudatus, C. boiquira, C. catesbaei, C. cyanurus, C. durissus concolor, C. d. melanurus, C. fasciatus, C. d. mexicana, C. , C. horridus atricaudatus, C. h. horridus, C. zetazomae

Common Names: Timber rattlesnake, banded rattlesnake, canebrake, Seminole rattler, velvet tail, Wald-Kupperschlange

Description

Large, terrestrial, rattlesnake, adults usually 120-145 cm long (max. 189 cm); body tan, grayish brown, yellowish, or pinkish-gray; 15-34 dark brown to black dorsal crossbands or chevrons, each irregularly edged w/ pale scales; has dark postorbital stripes; belly yellowish, gray or pinkish w/ dark flecks or mottling. Juveniles more distinctly patterned, & w/ dark tail bands.

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Habitat

Usually found in moist forests in low bottomlands, & hilly & mountainous uplands; in dry brushy areas and moderately open mixed beech-birch-maple forests; from sea level to 2,000 m elevation. Found throughout most of the eastern U.S., from southeastern Minnesota & southern Maine southward to eastern Texas & northern Florida; also occurs in southern Ontario, Canada.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, but sometimes climbs onto logs or tree stumps at least 1 m above ground; mainly nocturnal, but often basks in the sun. Adults prey mainly on small mammals & birds. For generalized behavior of a fairly closely-related species, See Crotalus durissus.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. For more generalized information about a related species, See Crotalus durissus.

Crotalus intermedius

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus gloydi gloydi, C. g. lautus, C. intermedius gloydi, C. i. intermedius, C. i. omiltemanus, C. omiltemanus, C. o. omiltemanus, C. triseriatus, C. t. gloydi, C. t. omiltemanus

Common Names: Mexican small-headed rattlesnake, chilladora, vibora de cascabel, vibora sorda

Description

Small, fairly slender terrestrial, rattlesnake, adults usually 40-60 cm long (max. 60 cm); body usually gray, pale blue-gray, or brownish-gray; pattern varies a lot, usually w/ a series of brownish to dark grayish irregular blotches, each narrowly edged w/ black. Often w/ a pair of dark nape blotches & broad dark brown postorbitasl stripe, belly pale w/ various amounts of gray stippling.

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Habitat

Found most commonly in seasonally dry pine-oak forest at 2,000 m to at least 3,000 m. in the central & southern highlands of Mexico (Hidalgo, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Guerrero).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & diurnal. Active during the day on sunny days of wet season; not often encountered during the dry season. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, usually will coil w/ the head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, may strike quickly if further molested. Ovoviviparous; 1 observed litter of 5 young. Eat mainly available lizards, small mammals (mainly mice), & invertebrates (& very rarely birds).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factor(s). Relatively few bites of humans, but may be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurs. No well-documented human deaths due to bites by this species.

Crotalus lannomi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Autlan rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel

Description

Small, relatively stout rattlesnake, adult(s) apparently about 60 cm long (max. 63.8 cm). Body grayish, w/ a series of irregular brownish dorsal blotches, 27 midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly grayish w/ 2 series of irregular darker spots laterally. Tail long & slender, cream w/ 4 black crossbands, rattles dark brownish. [Known from a single specimen collected in 1966.]

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Habitat

Found in a transitional zone between deciduous forest & pine-oak forest at about 1,000 m elevation, in southwestern Mexico (Jalisco). Known only from type locality.

Activity and Behavior

Very little specific behavioral data. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, most rattlesnakes will usually coil w/ their head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Probably mainly terrestrial, nocturnal, & ovoviviparous (litter size not known). Probably preys mainly on available lizards, small mammals, & invertebrates (maybe also birds).

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Probably mainly hemotoxic; may also have tissue-necrotic factors. One would expcet that bites by this species may be painful at the bite site w/ progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurs (based on symptoms caused by venoms of closely-related species).

Crotalus lepidus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Aploaspis lepida, Caudisona lepida, Crotalus lepidus castaneus, C. l. klauberi, C. l. lepidus, C. l. maculosus, C. l. maculossus, C. l. morulus, C. palmeri, C. semicornutus, C. tigris var. palmeri

Common Names: Rock rattlesnake, banded rock rattlesnake, cha-cha-mu-ri, chamure, vibora, vibora de cascabel, vibora verde de cascabel, Felsen-Klapperschlange

Description

Small to medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied rattlesnake, adults usually 50-70 cm long (max. 83 cm); body colors & patterns extremely variable; body usually greenish, olive, reddish-brown, light brown, gray or pinkish-gray; 21-25 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows, dorsal pattern usually has dark, laterally expanded blotches (often white-edged) that may form complete crossbands. Belly lighter, usually w/ various amounts of darker gray mottling.

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Habitat

Variable; including pine-oak forest, scrub & cactus grasslands, & Chihuahuan desert, often associated w/ mountains & rugged broken terrain in the vicinity of rocky outcroppings & slides. In forests, usually found in open or barren rocky areas subject to intense sunlight. Found from southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico to the Edwards plateau in central Texas, then south to south-central Mexico (Jalisco).

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, mostly nocturnal, but can be active during daylight in cooler temperatures. Easily excited & nervous, this snake can quickly assume a defensive posture & will strike if molested or stepped on. Ovoviviparous, 3-9 young/ litter for >5 observed, captured females. Eats a wide variety of available arthropods (insects, like grasshoppers & caterpillars), lizards, & small mammals & birds.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic, also w/ pre-synaptically acting neurotoxins; serious human envenomations & deaths have been reported. Envenomation symptoms may include: intense painful at bite site w/ rapid progression of pain, swelling & discoloration up the bitten limb, nausea, blistering, malaise, dizziness, & sometimes heart or breathing problems.

Crotalus mitchellii

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus confluentus mitchelli, C. c. stephensis, C. goldmani, C. mitchelli, C. m. aureus, C. mitchellii, C. m. angelenis, C. m. angelicus, C. m. mitchellii, C. m. muertensis, C. m. pyrrhus, C. m. stephensi, C. oregonus var. mitcheli, C. tigris mitchellii

Common Names: Speckled rattlesnake, vibora blanca, vibora de cascabel

Description

Medium-large, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually 90-100 cm long (max. 136 cm), some island populations dwarfed (max. 64 cm) w/ reduced rattle. Body colors & pattern extremely variable, 21-27 (usually 23-27) midbody dorsal scale rows. Body usually brownish to greenish-brown, w/ 23-46 irregular (often interrupted) darker crossbands, rather than blotches, belly lighter w/ darker mottling. Tail w/ 3-9 widely-spaced dark crossbands, each band widest dorsally, basal rattle segment black.

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Habitat

Found most commonly inhabiting rocky hillsides, rock ledges & canyons; in desert scrub, Joshua tree, & pinon-juniper woodlands. It also occurs in low shrub areas, tropical deciduous forest, & pine-oak forest in the northern part of its range. Found up to 2,400 m elevation. Occurs in southwestern U.S. from central California, SW Utah, SW Nevada, & W Arizona to Baja California & adjacent islands.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & mainly nocturnal in midsummer (may be diurnal in spring & fall). Very nervous & quick to strike if disturbed even slightly. Ovoviviparous w/ 1-8 young/ litter for observed captured females. Eat mainly available lizards, small mammals & sometimes birds.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic w/ potent tissue-necrotic factors. However, the venom of one subspecies (C. m. mitchellii) is mainly neurotoxic, lacking significant hemorrhagic & proteolytic activity. Envenomation by this subspecies can cause neurotoxic symptoms. Serious envenomations & deaths of humans have been reported.

Crotalus molossus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona molossa, C. molossus, Crotalus basiliscus oaxacus, C. durissus var. molossus, C. molossus, C. m. estebanensis, C. m. molossus, C. m. nigrescens, C. m. oaxacus, C. ornatus, C. terrificus (in part)

Common Names: Black-tailed rattlesnake, green rattler, palanca,palancacoatl, tecutlacotzauhqui, tepecolcoatl, tleua, vibora,cascabel, vibora de cascabel de cola negra

Description

Large, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually 80-100 cm long (max. 133 cm), 23-29 midbody dorsal scale rows, w/ dark postorbital stripe. Body color & pattern extremely variable; dorsal body usually tan, brownish-olive or grayish-brown w/ 24-34 dark-brown diamond-like blotches, yellowish-edged (rarely all black, dorsally). Belly cream to pale yellow w/ lateral dark mottling. Tail usually darker than body background color (often black) w/ NO prominent stripes or bars.

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Habitat

Found mainly in pine-oak forest, tropical deciduous forest, grassy hillsides, scrub & cactus areas, & upland Sonoran desert; often associated w/ rocky areas such as cliffs & rock slides along streams. Occurs from sea level to 2,930 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, but also active at dusk & dawn. Semi-arboreal, often climbs into low bushes & trees up to height of several meters. Temperament variable. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, usually coils w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hisses, rattles, & strikes if further molested. Ovoviviparous w/ 3-16 young/ litter for observed, captured females. Mainly eat available lizards (including Gila Monsters), mammals & birds.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, large venom yield, but no human deaths have been reported, so far. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent necrotic (tissue-destroying) factor(s). Can be very painful at bite site w/ swelling & necrosis.

Crotalus oreganus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona lucifer, C. l. cerberus, Crotalus adamanteus var. lucifer, C. confluentus abyssus, C. c. concolor, C. c. decolor, C. c. lutosis, C. c. oregonus, C. c. lucifer, C. hallowelli, C. lucifer, C. oregonus niger, C. viridis abyssus, C. v. caliginis, C. v. cerberus, C. v. concolor, C. v. decolor, C. v. helleri, C. v. lutosis, C. v. oregonus,

Common Names: Western rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel

Description

Medium-sized, fairly stout, terrestrial pitviper, max. adult length usually <0.9 m; the only rattlesnake species on Isla de Cedros. Body color variable, usually gray-brown to reddish-brown, w/ a series of large, dark diamond-shaped rhombs along dorsal midline, usually lighter in center, & edged w/ lighter scales. Smaller dark blotches along sides. Tail light gray to white w/ black crossbands, chin whitish, belly light-gray to pale brown, often w/ darker brownish-gray blotches.

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Habitat

Found most commonly in rocky terrain covered w/ desert vegetation, pine-oak forests from near sea level to 3,355 m elevation. Found from southwestern Canada, throughout much of the western half of the U.S. & into northern Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, mainly nocturnal. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, usually will coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Ovoviviparous w/ usually <10 young/ litter. Preys on available small mammals, & sometimes birds (young occasionally prey on lizards &/or amphibian in part of its range).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factor(s). Bites usually are very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurred. Numerous serious envenomations & deaths of humans due to bites by this species have been reported historically.

Crotalus polystictus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona polysticha, Crotalus jimenezii, C. lugubris, C. l. var. multimaculata, C. triseriatus var. jimenezii

Common Names: Mexican lancehead rattlesnake, chiauhcotl, chiauitl, hocico de puerco, tziripa, vibora de cascabel

Description

Medium-sized, fairly stout terrestrial rattlesnake, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 100 cm). Body usually pale (grey, buff, tan, or light brown) w/ 30-47 closely-spaced dark-brown rounded-elongated dorsal blotches (looks "Giraffe-like"). Head unusually slender, 25-29 (usually 27) midbody dorsal scale rows, belly white at front, stippled w/ dark-brown at middle of each ventral scale, darker toward tail. Tail yellowish w/ 4-7 dark brown dorsal crossbands & brownish ventral spots.

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Habitat

Found mainly in broad valleys, plains, & meadows at 1,450-2,600 m elevation. Most common in rocky outcroppings & grassy, mesquite scrub areas. Particularly common in rocky areas or areas w/ many gopher (rodent) burrows, in which the snakes often hide. Historic reports refer to certain probably semi-aquatic populations of this species, which have apparently been extirpated since.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, but occupy rodent burrows, & reportedly swim readily & very well. Mostly nocturnal during the dry season, but can become active in daylight hours during the rainy season w/ the growth of high grasses. Quick to move away when humans approach. Not usually agressive, but will strike quickly if cornered.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Probably mainly hemotoxic (& probably w/ tissue-necrotoxic factors). This species' long fangs & large average venom yield make it a potentially dangerous snake; envenomation of humans has resulted in severe symptoms.

Crotalus pricei

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus pricei miquihuanus, C. p. pricei, C. triseriatus miquihuanus, C. t. pricei

Common Names: Twin-spotted rattlesnake, mountain sidewinder, chachamuri, vibora de cascabel

Description

Small, moderately stout terrestrial rattlesnake, adults usually 50-60 cm long (max. 66 cm), w/ 21-23 midbody dorsal scale rows & a dark postocular stripe. Body color variable; usually light gray, brownish-gray, or reddish-brown w/ 39-64 paired dark para-vertebral dorsal blotches (looks "twin-spotted"); these sometimes merge forming "bow-tie shaped" marks. These marks may be obscured in melanistic or older specimens. Throat whitish, belly whitish & suffused w/ black toward tail.

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Habitat

Found most commonly in pine-oak & boreal forest, usually near volcanic rock or limestone outcroppings, at 1,850-3,203(+) m elevation. Occurs from southeastern Arizona into central Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial. Mainly active only by day (diurnal), but below 2,500 m elevation, it may be active at night (nocturnal). Ovoviviparous w/ 4-9 young/ litter observed for captured females. Prey on available lizards, small mammals, ground-nesting birds, & sometimes other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. This species has short fangs & a low venom yield & probably poses little health risk to humans. No human fatalities reported as caused by this species, so far. Rattlesnake venoms are mainly hemotoxic; some spp. also have necrotoxic (tissue-destroying) &/ or neurotoxic factors. Envenomations are often painful at the bite site & may have progressive spreading local or systemic swelling, bleeding, nausea, & for some species, sometimes cardiac or respiratory effects.

Crotalus pusillus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus triseriatus, C. t. triseriatus,

Common Names: Tancitaran dusky rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel

Description

Small, moderately stout, terrestrial rattlesnake, adults usually <70 cm long; body usually grayish-brown, occasionally fawn or grayish w/ greenish overtones; dark brown dorsal blotches sometimes are black-bordered & narrowly & irregularly edged w/ white, 23-25 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows, dark-brown postocular stripe, belly pale w/ speckling of dark gray or brown, heavier & darker toward tail.

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Habitat

Most common in pine-oak forest, usually associated w/ volcanic rock or limestone outcroppings, at 1,500-2,400 m elevation. Limited to west-central Mexico (NE Michoacan, S Jalisco).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly diurnal & terrestrial. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, strike. Ovoviviparous w/ 3-5 young/ litter observed for captured females. Reported to prey on available lizards, small mammals (including a bat, Eptesicus fuscus), & arthropods.

Venom Characteristics

Venom reportedly has low toxicity & is mainly hemotoxic, but may contain some tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be painful at the bite site w/ some local &/or systemic symptoms if maximum envenomation occurred. No well-documented human fatalities from bites of this species, so far.

Crotalus ravus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona rava, Crotalophorus ravus, Crotalus miliarius ravus, Sistrurus ravus, S. r. brunneus, S. r. exiguus, S. r. lutescens, S. r. ravus, S. r. sinaloensis

Common Names: Mexican pygmy rattlesnake, colcoatl, cascabel enana, vibora de cascabel, viborita de cascabel

Description

Small, fairly stout, terrestrial rattlesnake, adults usually 40-65 cm long (max. 70+ cm); body colors & patterns extremely variable; usually pale grayish-brown, dark brown, bluish-gray, or pale rust; w/ 22-44 reddish-brown to dark-brown dorsal blotches, often, each is pale-centered, 21-25 midbody dorsal scale rows, usually no obvious postorbital stripe, belly pale w/ lots of darker mottling, 2-8 dark tail bands.

Habitat

Found in pine-oak forest, cloud forest, boreal forest, high tropical scrub, & upper tropical deciduous forest, in temperate montane regions to high elevations across the Mexican plateau; in central-southern Mexico, at 1,490-3,000 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, & usually diurnal, but have been observed to be active at night. Prey mainly on available small mammals, sometimes birds (rarely lizards). Ovoviviparous w/ 3-7 young/ litter reported.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but mainly hemotoxic, possibly containing some tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be painful, w/ local & progressive swelling & necrosis. No human fatalities documented due to bites by this species, so far.

Crotalus ruber

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona atrox sonoraensis, Crotalus adamanteus atrox, C. a. ruber, C. atrox ruber, C. a. elegans, C. a. lucasensis, C. exsul, C. e. exsul, C. e. lorenzoensis, C. e. lucasensis, C. lucasensis, C. ruber elegans, C. r. lorenzoensis, C. r. lucasensis, C. r. monserratensis, C. r. ruber

Common Names: Red diamond rattlesnake, monserratensis, red rattlesnake, Cedros Island diamondback rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel, Rote Diamant-Klapperschlange

Description

Medium to large rattlesnake, adults usually 100-150 cm long (max. 162 cm) 25-33 (usually 27 or 29) midbody dorsal scale rows. Body color & patterns highly variable (overall dull ochre to vividly marked w/ brown, black, & white scales), but the tail is usually ash-gray w/ 3-5 black alternating w/ white bands; white bands usually slightly narrower dorsally.

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Habitat

Mainly found in cool coastal areas, pine-oak & tropical deciduous forest, & desert; most often found in brushy grassland, rocky areas w/ heavy brush, or cactus-covered foothills. Found up to 1,500 m elevation. Occurs in southwestern California & Baja California.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (may be considered semi-fossorial, because it often occupies its prey rodents' burrows for extended periods). Ovoviviparous w/ usually <10 young/ litter. Prey mainly on available lizards & burrowing small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

This species has long fangs & a large yield of potent venom; has caused human fatalities. Mainly hemotoxic but may also have potent tissue-necrotic factors. Bite effects may be very painful at the bite site & may include progressive swelling & necrosis.

Crotalus scutulatus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona scutulata, Crotalus adamanteus scutulatus, C. confluentus kellyi, C. molossus (in part), C. salvini, C. scutulatus salvini, C. s. scutulatus,

Common Names: Mohave rattlesnake, Mohave green rattlesnake, chiauhcoatl, vibora de cascabel, Mojave-Klapperachlange

Description

Description

Relatively small, fairly slender rattlesnake, adults usually <60 cm long (max. 72 cm); disproportionally long, slender tail & a tiny rattle. Usually pale gray brown to light brown, w/ 32-43 dorsal dark blotches usually highly irregular in shape & not diamond-shaped, 23-29 midbody dorsal scale rows, belly white w/ irregular roundish, gray or brown blotches along the sides, tongue black w/ white tip.

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Habitat

Found most commonly in ecotone between tropical deciduous & pine-oak forest at 500-1,200 m elevation, limited to western Mexico (Sierra Madre Occidental of western Durango, southern Sinaloa).

Activity and Behavior

Not well known. Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal; sometimes found moving about at dusk or dawn. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, this species will usually coil w/ its head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Ovoviviparous (litter size not reported, but probably <10 young/ litter). Preys mainly on locally available lizards, small mammals & arthropods.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factors. May be very painful at a bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if significant envenomation occurred. Human fatalities have been reported (rarely), but not well documented, so far.

Crotalus tigris

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus tigris tigris

Common Names: Tiger rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel, Tiger-Klapperschlange

Description

Medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied rattlesnake, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 88.5 cm), w/ ill-defined postorbital stripe & 21-27 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows. Body usually gray, lavendar, blue-gray, pink or buff; shading to pink, pale orange or cream on sides; w/ 35-52 darker (usually brownish) crossbars that are broadest dorsally, narrowing laterally. Belly straw-colored, yellow or pink & mottled w/ gray or brown. Tail w/ 4-10 indistinct dark brown crossbands.

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Habitat

Found mainly in Sonoran desert & low-shrub grassland from near sea level to 1,465+ m elevation; found almost exclusively in rugged, rocky country. Limited to southern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, & northwestern Sonora, Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & diurnal, but active any time of day. Avoids prolonged exposure to direct sunlight during hot periods; especially active after summer rains. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, this species will usually coil w/ its head & neck thrown back in a horizontal "S-shaped" loop, & will strike if further provoked. Ovoviviparous w/ 4-6 young/ litter observed for captured females. Mainly preys on available lizards & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic w/ potent tissue-necrotic factors; venom also has pre-synaptic neurotoxins. However, average venom yield is low, & bites usually are not life-threatening for humans. Bites usually are painful locally, & there may be progressive swelling & necrosis, if significant envenomation occurred.

Crotalus tortugensis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus atrox tortugensis

Common Names: Tortuga Island diamond rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel

Description

Medium-sized, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually 80-90 cm long (max. 105 cm), w/ dark postorbital stripe bordered below by a pale stripe, & 25-27 midbody dorsal scale rows. Body gray to gray-brown (may have purplish or pink tinge), w/ 32-41 dorsal dark brownish diamond-like blotches. Belly paler w/ irregular gray-brown speckling, heavy toward tail. Tail w/ 3-7 black rings (alternating w/ ash-white). Overall appearance very similar to that of C. atrox, but w/ proportionally smaller head.

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Habitat

Found mainly in desert conditions; w/ rocky, barren terrain w/ sparse brush & cacti. Limited to the Isla Tortuga off the east coast of Baja California Sur in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Also is the only rattlesnake reported from that island.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & mainly diurnal, but also active at night. Reportedly quick to assume a defensive posture & rattle, if threatened. If there is no ready escape route, it will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Ovoviviparous (litter size not reported, but probably <10 young/ litter). Preys mainly on available lizards, small mammals, (rarely, ground-nesting birds &/or arthropods).

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic, but may also have tissue-necrotic factors. Bites of humans very rare, no serious envenomations or fatalities reported as caused by bites of this species. Effects of envenomation would probably be similar to those caused by other rattlesnakes, if envenomation occurred. For generalized envenomation effects of a closely-related species, See Crotalus atrox.

Crotalus totonacus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus basiliscus totonacus, C. durissus neoleonensis, C. d. totonacus

Common Names: Totonacan rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel

Description

Medium to large-sized, stout rattlesnake, adults usually 140-150 cm long (max. 167+ cm). Body usually yellowish-brown, straw-yellow, olive-brown or pale gray-brown; patterned by black or dark-brown dorsal blotches, sub-hexagonal to diamond shaped, & bordered by white, cream or yellow lines; 25 midbody dorsal scale rows, vertebral row of dorsal scales strongly keeled, belly cream or yellow w/ darker clumps of pigment laterally.

Habitat

Found mainly in lowland tropical thorn forest & tropical deciduous forest, in some areas ranging up into pine-oak forest & lower cloud forest, in northeastern Mexico (Neuva Leon, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, San Luis Potosi, Queretaro), from sea level up to 1,680 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & mainly nocturnal, but sometimes active in daytime (depending on temperatures & other local conditions). Will avoid humans if possible, but will defend itself if cornered or molested. Ovoviviparous, but litter size not reported. Preys mainly on available small mammals (rats & squirrels), & very rarely, on lizards or arthropods.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic, possibly w/ some tissue-necrotic factors. Very few bites (& no fatalities, so far) of humans reported. For details about envenomation effects of a closely-related species, See Crotalus atrox.

Crotalus transversus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus triseriatus anahuacus

Common Names: Cross-banded mountain rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel

Description

Small, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually only 30-40 cm long (max. 46 cm) w/ 21 midbody dorsal scale rows. Body usually either brownish-gray or orangish; w/ 37-43 narrow, dark-brown to black transverse dorsal bars that do not extend very far laterally (5-9 more such bars on tail). Belly pale w/ scattered dark mottling (sometimes almost all black). Basal rattle segment usually the same color as body background.

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Habitat

Found mainly on steep volcanic slopes dominated by open pine & bunchgrass; at 3,000-3,710 m elevation. Limited to central southern Mexico south of Mexico City (Distrito Federal & northwestern Morelos).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & mainly diurnal; temperament variable. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Ovoviviparous w/ 4-6 young/ litter reported for captured females. Preys mainly on available lizards (predominantly just certain species) & sometimes small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Most rattlesnake venoms are mainly hemotoxic; but may also have potent tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic swelling & necrotic symptoms if envenomation occurred.

Crotalus triseriatus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona lugubris, C. triseriata, Crotalus lugubris, C. pallidus, C. polystictus (in part), C. triseriatus anahuacus, C. t. aquilus, C. t. armstrongi, C. t. quadrangularis, C. t. triseriatus, Uropsophus triseriatus

Common Names: Mexican dusky rattlesnake, central plateau dusky rattlesnake, Queretaran dusky rattlesnake, chiauhcotl, chiauitl, colcoatl, chilladora, hocico de puerco, vibora de cascabel

Description

Small, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually 50-60 cm long (max. 68 cm), postorbital dark stripe, 21-25 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows. Body colors extremely variable, from pale gray to reddish-brown; dorsal body pattern usually w/ 30-57 irregular dark-brown mid-dorsal blotches & a row of similar smaller dark blotches along each side. Markings often obscured in darker or older individuals.

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Habitat

Found most commonly in pine-oak forest, boreal forest, & mesquite grassland at 1,500-4,300 m elevation, limited to central & western highlands of the trans-volcanic range in southern Mexico. Highest ranging (in elevation) rattlesnake in the Americas.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & diurnal, may be active at night at elevations below 2,500 m. Temperament unclear. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, it will often coil w/ its head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further molested, will strike. Ovoviviparous w/ 4-6 young/ litter observed for captured females. Preys mainly on available lizards, small mammals, amphibians, & invertebrates.

Venom Characteristics

Reportedly has a small average yield of venom w/ low toxicity. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic swelling & necrosis if significant envenonation occurred.

Crotalus viridis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Caudisona confluenta, C. c. confluenta, C. c. lecontei, Crotalus confluentus, C. c. confluentus, C. c. lecontei. C. c. lucifer, C. c. nuntius, C. c. pulverulentus, C. oregonus cerberus (in part), C. concolor (in part), C. viridis caliginus, C. v. lutosis (in part), C. v. nuntius, C. v. viridis

Common Names: Prairie rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel

Description

Small to medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied rattlesnake, adults on mainland usually 100-130 cm long (max. 151 cm); island populations usually <70 cm long; Head w/ 2 thin white lateral lines, upper one extends through the eye, or from the eye rearward. Body variable: pale tan, dark brown, pinkish or greenish; w/ 33-57 dark brown mid-dorsal blotches (lighter in center) & smaller lateral blotches . Belly nearly all whitish to pale gray. Closely-related to, & looks very much like, C. oreganus.

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Habitat

Found in widely variable habitats, mainly in mesquite & brush covered grasslands & deserts; also pine-oak forest. Often found in brush-covered rocky canyons, rocky crevices, & sandy fields along the coast. May shelter in vegetation clumps & animal burrows. Often found near human habitations. Found up to 2,500 m elevation. Found in southern Canada, over much of the Great Plains of the U.S. & into northern Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal, may be active during the day in cool weather or at higher elevations. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in S-shaped loop, & may strike if further molested. Ovoviviparous w/ 3-21 young/ litter reported for captured females. Prey mainly on available toads, lizards, & small mammals (may sometimes be cannibalistic).

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic w/ potent necrotic (tissue destroying) factors; reportedly also has pre-synaptically acting neurotoxins. Envenomation symptoms usually include intense pain at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local swelling, discoloration & tissue necrosis; may also cause nausea, disorientation & cardiac or respiratory problems. Human deaths have been reportedly caused by envenomation by this species.

Crotalus willardi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Crotalus willardi amabilis, C. w. meridionalis, C. w. obscurus, C. w. silus, C. w. willardi

Common Names: Ridge-nosed rattlesnake, Arizona ridge-nosed rattlesnake, New Mexico ridge-nosed rattlesnake, Willard's rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel, Willard-Klaperschlange

Description

Small, fairly stout-bodied rattlesnake, adults usually 45-55 cm long (max. 67 cm). Snout w/ a distinct ridge; head usually dark above w/ 2 prominent lateral white lines, the upper passing below the eye, the lower at the jawline. Colors highly variable; reddish-brown, rust, yellow-brown, gray-brown or gray; w/ 18-45 dark brown dorsal blotches, belly pinkish, reddish or orangish w/ irregular black markings (darker toward tail), basal rattle segment dark brown; w/ 25-29 midbody dorsal scale rows.

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Habitat

Found mainly in pine-oak woodlands, oak scrub, & open grassy meadows within pine-oak forest; most abundant in humid canyon bottoms & less exposed slopes. Found at 1,460-2,750 m elevation. Limited to southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico & the Sierra Madre Occidental range in northwestern Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & diurnal. Reportedly has a mild temperament, but if molested, & w/ no ready escape route, will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, strike. Ovoviviparous w/ 2-9 (usually 4-6) young/ litter observed for captured females. Prey mainly on available lizards (esp. as juveniles) & small mammals (esp. as adults).

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Venom apparently only mildly toxic, mainly hemotoxic, but may also have necrotic factors. Bites may be locally painful w/ local or progressive swelling & some necrosis if significant envenonation occurred. No well documented cases of serious human envenomation or fatalities due to bites by this species, so far.

Daboia russelii

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Coluber russellii, Daboia russellii formosensis, D. r. limitis, D. r. russellii, D. r. siamensis, Vipera russelli, V. r. limitis, V. r. russelli, V. r. siamensis

Common Names: Russel's viper, tic polonga, Kettenviper

Description

Terrestrial, medium-to-large, stout viper, adults usually 100-150 cm long (max. 160+ cm); body orange, pink or gray, w/ 3 longitudinal rows of large, dark-edged spots, often interspersed by 2 additional rows of smaller but similar markings, 27-33 midbody dorsal scale rows, belly yellowish-white, often w/ dark brown markings, scales strongly keeled, head triangular & distinct from body.

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Habitat

Found mainly in fairly open dry woodlands & grassy hills, sometimes in the margins of fields or paths, up to 2,000 m elevation. Found from Pakistan eastward through southern China & southward through Indonesia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, mainly nocturnal; when threatened, produces a very loud drawn-out hissing sound. Bears live young, up to 60 per litter, each 24-30 cm long. Preys mainly on available small mammals, especially rodents (also on birds, & sometimes on lizards).

Venom Characteristics

Responsible for >1/2 of all reported venomous snake bites in southern Asia. Potent mainly hemotoxic venom, known to cause numerous serious human envenomations & fatalities each year. Polyvalent Antisnake Venom Serum

Deinagkistrodon acutus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Agkistrodon acutus, Halys acutus

Common Names: Chinese moccasin, Sharp-nosed pit viper, Hundred pacer, Snorkel viper, Chinesischer Kupferkopf, Chinesischer Nasenotter

Description

Medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied pitviper, adults usually 0.8-1.0 m long (max. 1.5 m). Usually light brown or grayish-brown w/ a series of dark brown triangles along each side. Pointed tops of 2 opposite triangles join mid-dorsally, creating an effect of alternating triangles of different colors. Head dark brown w/ beige or pinkish sides, w/ upturned, pointed snout & dark brown postorbital stripe running back from each eye to the side of the head. Hatchlings lighter w/ vivid patterns.

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Habitat

Found mainly on forested low mountain slopes or rock hills w/ small valleys, but also found in forested mountains up to 1,400 m elevation & low coastal areas at 100 m elevation. During day, may be seen on rocks or in vegetation along streams. Found in eastern, central & southern China, southern Taiwan, northern Vietnam & Laos.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, & most active at night or in evening but sometimes basks in the sun on exposed rocks or logs. Appears sluggish in fields, but strikes & bites vigorously when aroused. Remains coiled ready to strike at any time. Especially during fall season, hunts for rodents in or near paddies, in gardens, along roadsides, or in houses.

Venom Characteristics

Potent hemotoxin; strongly hemorrhagic. Envenomation symptoms include severe local pain & bleeding, which may begin almost immediately, followed by serious swelling, blistering, necrosis, & ulceration. Systemic symptoms may occur early & suddenly, & often include heart palpitations. Human fatalities have been reported.

Demansia olivacea

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Diemenia angusticeps, D. ornaticeps, Demansia olivacea calodera (in part), D. o. rufescens (in part), D. ornaticeps, Elapocephalus ornaticeps, Lycodon olivaceus

Common Names: Olive whipsnake, marble-headed whipsnake

Description

Long, thin, cylindrical body, w/ narrow head, rather large eyes, set well forward on sides of head, w/ round pupils, smooth scales, a pair of fixed upper front fangs; adults usually 50-70 cm long (max. about 110 cm); body dark to light olive color, w/ reticulated dorsal pattern similar to that of D. psammophis, but less distinct; tail often w/ a reddish tinge.

Habitat

Usually found in savannah, savannah forest, open woodlands, & sometimes cultivated areas, & edges of paths or roads. Limited to Australia (Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland).

Activity and Behavior

Not well known. Mainly diurnal & terrestrial, very alert & active, fast moving, often seen but difficult to catch. Can defend itself aggressively if cornered, & may raise front of body, threaten & bite (quickly & repeatedly). Mainly eats lizards, frogs & occasionally small mammals. Oviparous, females reportedly lay about 10 eggs/ clutch.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Mainly nuerotoxic w/ mildly coagulant factors, may cause locally painful bite w/ limited swelling & numbness for extended period. Not reported to have caused any human fatalities, so far. Apparently reluctant to bite, but could be dangerous to humans.

Demansia papuensis

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Diemenia papuensis, D. psommophis (in part), Demansia olivacea papuensis, D. papuensis melaena, D. p. papuensis

Common Names: Greater black whip snake, Papuan whip snake

Description

Long, slender, cylindrical snake w/ rather short head, a long, whip-like tail; eyes relatively large, set forward on sides of its head, w/ round pupils; adults usually 70-120 cm long (max. 170+ cm); body black to dark-brown, w/ smooth, shiny scales, tail sometimes dark reddish color; two fixed upper front fangs.

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Habitat

Found mainly in savannah & savannah woodlands, somtimes in cultivated areas or along paths or roads. Despite its scientific & common names, this species is limited to northern & northeastern Australia only.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & mainly nocturnal. Very alert, active, fast-moving; often seen but hard to capture, when cornered, may aggressively defend itself & bite readily. Eat mainly lizards, frogs, & sometimes rodents. Oviparous, females have been reported to have laid 3-12 eggs/ clutch.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, may include hemotoxic (coagulant) factors. Bites can be very painful for extended periods (e.g., 20+ min.) & may include local swelling & numbness of a bitten digit or limb. Not reported to have caused any human fatalities.

Demansia psammophis

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Demnsia psammophis cupreiceps, D. p. psammophis, D. p. reticulata, Diemenia psammophis, Elaps psammophis, Lycodon reticulatus, Pseudelaps psammophidius, Trachylepis psammophis

Common Names: Yellow-faced whipsnake, yellow-faced whip snake,

Description

Medium-sized, long, thin, cylindrical body, w/ a pair of fixed upper front fangs, narrow head, large eyes, set well forward; smooth scales are light-yellowish colored, & appear to each be outlined in black or dark brown; body may be olive or reddish, tail almost solid reddish, dark circle around each eye, which extends backward as a stripe to the angle of the jaw.

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Habitat

Usually found in savannah, savannah forest, or open edges of woods or along trails. Found in every state in Australia & from Dirk Hartog Island, south of Harvey, Western Australia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly diurnal & mainly terrestrial; very fast, viviparous, may lay 4-13 eggs/ individual clutch, sometimes multiple females will lay clutches together in a "communal" nest (one such w/ >600 egg reported). Often seen but hard to catch. May defend itself aggressively if cornered.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Mildly coagulant factors, may cause a painful bite & sometimes localized numbing of a hand or limb. Apparently reluctant to bite but potentially dangerous to humans. No human fatalities reported to have been due to envenomation by this species, so far.

Demansia spp.

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Currently 11 or 12 species in this genus, but only 4 species (listed individually, separately, in this data base) are often encountered by humans. [Image w/ this entry shows D. torquata - not otherwise addressed in this database.]

Common Names: Australian, or Asian, whip snakes

Description

Very long slender snakes w/ relatively short heads & long, whip-like tails; eyes large, set far forward on head, w/ round pupils. Adults of most species 60-100 cm long (max. 120 cm). Background color usually uniformly glossy green-black to olive or dark reddish; most are plain dark-colored or have a reticulated dorsal pattern; smooth, shiny scales, w/ 2 fixed upper front fangs.

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Habitat

Primarily found in savannah & open savannah woodlands; several species may be found in cultivated areas or near trails/ roads. All are mainly limited to Australia or New Guinea, or both (plus certain nearby islands).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly diurnal & terrestrial. Very active & nervous; fast-moving; feed mainly on lizards & frogs, sometimes on rodents. Reportedly usually secretive & evasive, but may act aggressive & bite quickly if provoked. Oviparous, females of most species lay 4-12 eggs/ clutch.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic; possibly w/ hemotoxic factor(s). Bites may result in severe local pain & swelling persisting for a week or more. No specific antivenom currently produced, but Tiger Snake antivenom reportedly may be effective. Not reported to cause human fatalities, so far.

Demansia vestigiata

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Demansia atra (in part), D. maculiceps, D. superba, Hoplocephalus vestigiatus

Common Names: Lesser black whip snake

Description

Small to medium-sized, w/ long, thin, cylindrical body, smooth, shiny scales, a pair of fixed upper front fangs, very prominent eyes set forward on the sides of their head, mainly dark brownish to black dorsally, adults usually 120-170 cm long. Tail whip-like & often dull reddish-brown to reddish colored.

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Habitat

Found mainly in savannah, savannah forest, along paths/ roads, & sometimes in cultivated land, in northern & eastern Australia & southern New Guinea. This is apparently the most common, & one of the 2 most widely distributed, species in this genus.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial & diurnal, very fast-moving, prey mainly on lizards, & possibly also frogs. Often seen, but very hard to capture, if cornered, may confront the threat & may sometimes aggressively defend itself. Oviparous, lays clutches of about 12 eggs each.

Venom Characteristics

Reportedly has relatively mild venom, mainly neurotoxic w/ one or more coagulant factors, can inflict a painful bite on humans & possibly cause a numbing effect which involves a whole limb (e.g., arm). Apparently reluctant to bite, but could be dangerous to humans.

Dendroaspis angusticeps

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Dendroaspis sjostedti, Naja angusticeps

Common Names: Eastern green mamba, green mamba, Blattgrune Mamba, Gewohnliche Mamba

Description

Large, relatively slender, arboreal Elapid, adults usually 1.5-2.0 m long (max. 2.5 m), w/ narrow, coffin-shaped head. Body uniformly bright green on back w/ yellowish-green belly; & 17-19 midbody dorsal scale rows. Smooth, narrow scales, small eyes, round pupils, interior of mouth white. Young (<60 cm long) often bluish-green (vs. grayish for young boomslangs).

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Habitat

Mainly found in coastal bush, evergreen coastal forests, bamboo thickets &, where these have been destroyed, found in tea & mango plantations.

Activity and Behavior

Active, mainly arboreal & diurnal (active at dusk & dawn, too); seldom ventures to ground. Shy & rarely seen. Relatively nonaggressive; when cornered, will threaten & bite, but usually only as a last resort. Oviparous (up to 17 eggs/ clutch), & mainly eat available small mammals, birds & bats (& maybe lizards).

Venom Characteristics

Venom contains potent neurotoxins. This species is common throughout its range, but bites of humans are rare. Deaths of humans have been reported, but are uncommon. Seriously envenomated humans may need ventilation support in addition to aggressive antivenom therapy.

Dendroaspis jamesoni

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Dendraspis angusticeps, D. jamesoni, D. jamesonii, D. neglectus, D. welwitschii, Dendroaspis jamesoni jamesoni, D. j. kaimosae, Dinophis fasciolatus, Elaps jamesoni

Common Names: Jameson's mamba, Jameson-Mamba

Description

Large, slender, w/ narrow head, smooth, narrow scales, adults usually 1.5-2.2 m long (max. 2.5 m); usually dull-green above, pale-green below; scales narrowly edged w/ black; w/ 15-17 midbody dorsal scale rows. Overall color becomes darker toward tail. Long thin tail all black (or w/ "netlike" yellow & black pattern in some populations). Eyes rather small (vs. large eyes in boomslangs).

Habitat

Tropical rain forest regions, woodlands, & sometimes isolated patches of thick vegetation w/ one or more trees. Found throughout equatorial tropical forest belt of central & western Africa, from Kenya to Ghana & south to Angola & Burundi.

Activity and Behavior

Arboreal & mainly diurnal, very active & agile, but sometimes descend to the ground. If cornered, it spreads a hood or inflates its throat. Seldom aggressive, but will defend itself if cornered or persistently molested. Oviparous (clutch size not reported) & mainly eats available rodents &/or birds.

Venom Characteristics

Not well studied. Mainly contains very potent neurotoxins, may also contain some hemotoxic or myotoxic factors. This species is common throughout its range, but bites of humans are rare. Human fatalities have been reported, & seriously envenomated humans may need ventilation support in addition to antivenom therapy.

Dendroaspis polylepis

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Dendraspis angusticeps, D. polylepis, Dendroaspis polylepis antinori, D. p. antinorii, D. p. polylepis

Common Names: Black mamba

Description

Large, active, slender, semi-arboreal, adults usually 2.2-2.7 m long (max. 3.5 m). May be brown, olive brown, dark olive, greenish brown or dark blackish gray; w/ long, narrow head & 23-25 (rarely 21) midbody dorsal scale rows, scales smooth (may have purplish "bloom"). Belly cream, ivory or pale green. Mouth blue-gray to blackish inside. Has a pair of fixed upper front fangs.

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Habitat

Found most commonly (rather wide-spread) in well-wooded low-lying savannahs of southern & eastern Africa, especially in area of rocky outcroppings, but not in true grassland, rain forest, or desert. Also frequents abandoned termite mounds, mammal burrows, & even thatched roofs; usually found at <1,500 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly diurnal & mainly terrestrial, but also climbs trees rapidly & agilely in search of prey or shelter. Usually shy & elusive; moves off rapidly at first sign of danger. If cornered, may raise forepart of body from ground & spread narrow hood. If intruder persists, it can strike a long way out & up. Extremely fast, largest poisonous snake in Africa. Oviparous, 6-17 eggs/ clutch, eats various prey, mainly small mammals, birds, & other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Most dreaded African venomous snake; few people survive its bite unless antivenom administered promptly. Vemon very potent neurotoxin & cardiotoxin, death usually due to respiratory failure. Can deliver a large amount (10 times estimated human LD50) in 1 bite. Envenomations w/ symptoms showing within 1 hour are serious. Usually starts w/ tightening of chest & throat muscles, then gradual paralysis of facial muscles.

Dendroaspis viridis

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Leptophis viridis

Common Names: West African green mamba, Western green mamba, Grune Mamba

Description

Long, thin, quick-moving alert, green & black tree snake w/ narrow head. Adults usually 1.4-2.1 m long (max. 2.3+ m). Usually medium-green to yellowish-green; scales usually edged w/ black (especially on head). Smooth dorsal scales relatively very large, in 13 midbody rows, & long thin tail w/ yellow scales edged w/ black. Fixed upper front fangs. Belly pale green.

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Habitat

Found mainly in coastal rain forests &, sometimes, isolated patches of thick vegetation w/ 1 or more trees. Limited to sub-Saharan western Africa, from Nigeria westward to Guinea.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly diurnal & mainly arboreal, but quite often descends to ground if disturbed. Reportedly fairly common throughout its range, but shy & seldom seen. If cornered, may (only very rarely) spread a small hood or inflate its throat. Oviparous (clutch size unknown) & eats mainly available small mammals (e.g., squirrels), birds, & bats.

Venom Characteristics

Venom primarily neurotoxic, but not much known. Potentially dangerous, but bites of humans rare. A few reported envenomations & human deaths due to bites by this species had symptoms very similar to those caused by Black Mamba venom.

Dispholidus typus

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Identification

Family: Colubridae

Scientific Names: Bucephalus capensis, B. typus, Dispholidus typus kivuenis, D. t. punctatus, D. t. typus

Common Names: Boomslang, Grune Boomslang

Description

Large, rather slender, rear-fanged tree-snake, adults usually 1.2-1.5 m long (max. 2+ m). May be black to drab olive-brown, to almost all green; no blotches or distinct spots, juveniles change color (becoming darker & duller) as they become adults. Sexes often different colored. Short stubby head & enormous emerald-green eyes. Scales strongly keeled & overlapping, look like they are in 17-21 diagonal (angled) midbody dorsal rows.

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Habitat

Most common in most kinds of wooded habitats; dry woodlands, thorn scrub, savannahs, & swamps bordering or close to streams, rivers, & lakes. Found throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa except continuous rain forests of the Congo basin or true deserts. Reported from

Activity and Behavior

Mainly diurnal, strongly arboreal, spends most of time in trees & shrubs. Notably nonaggressive & shy; quickly retreats if surprised. If cornered, inflates neck to more than twice usual size showing bright yellow or orangish skin beneath. Oviparous, usually lay up to 25 eggs in moist rotting logs on the ground. Prey mainly on tree lizards, birds & eggs, & sometimes arboreal rodents & bats. Do not attempt to constrict prey.

Venom Characteristics

Very potently hemotoxic; can cause severe bleeding internally, within critical organs, & from mucous membranes. Human deaths reported in as short as 3-5 days.

Echis carinatus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinata, Echis carinatus, E. c. astolae, E. c. astoles, E. c. carinatus, E. c. multisquamatus, E. c. sochureki, E. multisquamatus, E. sochureki, Pseudoboa carinata

Common Names: Saw-scaled viper, carpet viper, African carpet viper, Egyptian saw-scaled viper, Indian saw-scaled viper, phoorsa, Sandrassselotter, Sochurek's saw-scaled viper, Central Asian saw-scaled viper

Description

Small, rather stout, flat, sand viper, adults avg. 20-30 cm long (max. 80 cm); body grayish, greenish, or yellowish brown; belly white speckled w/ brown or black. Moveable front fangs. Series of middorsal white cross-bars edged w/ black & whitish zigzag along each side. Distinctive cruciform white mark on top of head (differs for each recognized subspecies).

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Habitat

Found mainly in open, dry or semi-desert areas, dry savannahs, or even forest edges. Found under small thorny plants, leaf litter, rocks, & in dry scrub jungle. Mainly found in semi-arid regions of southern Asia, India, & Astola Island off the Pakistan coast. Despite some of its common names, it does not occur in Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal in hot weather; often diurnal in cool weather. Mainly terrestrial (semi-fossorial; buries itself in sand) but climbs up to 2 m into bushes. When alarmed, throws itself into double coil like a figure-8 & rubs sides of body together, producing violent rustling sounds. Very nervous; quick to strike at slightest provocation. Reportedly oviparous w/ usually 4-20 eggs/ clutch. Main preys on lizards & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Fangs rather large compared to size of snake. Common cause of snake bites in its range. Local symptoms generally include pain, swelling, & enlarged tender lymph glands. After 10-12 hours, some victims begin to bleed from gums & later develop deep-organ or cerebral bleeding (sometimes fatal).

Echis carinatus multisquamatus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis multisquamatus

Common Names: Central Asian saw-scaled viper

Description

Small, fairly stout, flat, sand viper, adults usually 40-60 cm long (max. 85 cm). Body usually grayish, greenish, or yellowish-brown; belly white, speckled w/ brown or black. Well-defined pale, continuous, undulating line along flanks. Distinctive cruciform white marking on top of head.

Habitat

Mainly found in open scrubby, dry, sandy, & rocky areas.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal in hot weather; sometimes diurnal in cool weather. When alarmed, throws itself into double coil somewhat like a "figure 8" & rubs sides of body together, making a violent rustling sound. Very nervous; quick to strike at slightest provocation. Probably oviparous, & probably preys on available small animals.

Venom Characteristics

Little known about venom. Characteristics likely similar to other Echis spp. Probably mainly hemotoxic. Fangs relatively large compared to size of snake. Local symptoms include pain, swelling, & enlarged tender lymph glands. Serious envenomation can cause bleeding in places distant from bite site or in deep organs or the brain. Human fatalities have been recorded. Polyvalent Antisnake Venom Serum

Echis carinatus sochureki

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinata (in part), Echis carinatus (in part), Echis sochureki

Common Names: Sochurek's saw-scaled viper, Sochurek's (or Sind) sand viper, carpet viper, Indian saw-scaled viper, phoorsa, Asian saw-scaled viper, Sandrasselotter

Description

Small to medium-sized stout, flat sand viper, adults usually 40-75 cm long (max 85+ cm), w/ a pair of upper front fangs, rather large for its body size. Body grayish, yellowish-brown (rarely greenish) above, belly white, may be speckled w/ brown or black. Has well-defined continuous, pale, undulating line along flanks & dictinctive cruciform white marking on top of head.

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Habitat

Found mainly in dry or semi-desert opensites, usually on sandy & rocky soils. Often found in margins of oases or edges of dry forests or scruby thorny bushes. Limited to semi-arid & arid regions of southern Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan & western India.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial (may climb >1 m up into bushes) & nocturnal (often diurnal in cool weather or season). If alarmed, throws its body into double coil (figure-8) & rubs sides together, making violent rasping or rustling sound. Nervous, quick to strike w/ slight provocation. Regional medical experts report it is often very aggressive. Oviparous w/ <20 eggs/ clutch. Mainly eats available lizards & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic w/ possible cytotoxic factors. Very often envenomates humans within its range, & causes many human deaths annually. No effective specific antivenom against it currently available. Symptoms 10-12 hrs. after bite may include: local pain at bite site, lymph glands swollen & tender, bleeding from gums, deep organs, & sometimes in the brain (this is often fatal).

Echis coloratus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis colorata, Echis coloratus coloratus, E. c. terraesanctae, E. froenatus

Common Names: Burton’s carpet viper, Palestine saw-scaled viper, adder, Egyptian viper, saw-scaled viper, ep'eh (in Hebrew), Arabische Sandrasselotter

Description

Small, moderately stout, pale sand viper, adults usually 30-60 cm long (max. 80 cm); body usually yellowish-gray, light brownish-gray, or pale blue- gray, w/ gray to tan, bright reddish or pinkish, dark-edged dorsal blotches, 31-37 midbody dorsal scale rows, movable front fangs, keeled scales; belly white, grayish white or pale pinkish-white w/ brown or black speckles. Often w/ dark spots on flanks, dark postorbital stripe.

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Habitat

Can exist in extreme desert conditions, often in dry rocky wadis, but prefers firm, rocky ground & usually avoids loose sand. Found from sea level up to 2,500 m elevation. Several widely disjunct populations, but mainly limited to eastern Egypt, Sinai peninsula, Israel, Jordan & southeastern Arabian peninsula, possibly also in southwestern Qatar.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, nocturnal in hot weather; may be active at dusk, may be diurnal in cool weather. Often most active after rains or on humid nights. Often basks during early morning in bushes >2 m above ground. Basks in the open when cooler. When alarmed, throws body into C-shaped coils & rubs scales together making violent rustling sounds. Less irritable than E. carinatus, but aggressively defends itself if molested. Main prey are lizards & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Important cause of snakebite accidents & fatalities throughout its range; venom highly toxic to man. Venom primarily hemotoxic; internal & external hemorrhages common. Envenomation usually causes pain & swelling at bite site.

Echis leucogaster

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis arenicola, E. a. leucogaster, Echis carinatus leucogaster, Echis jogeri

Common Names: White-bellied carpet viper, Roman's saw-scaled viper

Description

Small, fairly stout, sand viper, adults usually 30-70 cm long (max. 87 cm); color variable, usually brown, gray, or reddish; may have a dorsal series of oblique pale crossbars, interspersed w/ dark spaces, keeled scales, moveable front fangs, 27-33 midbody dorsal scale rows. Usually has row of triangular or circular markings along flanks. Belly pale cream, white, or ivory w/ no markings.

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Habitat

Found mainly in arid savanna, semi-desert, & well-vegetated wadis. Not in true desert, but occurs on desert’s edge, oases, & elevated vegetated areas within deserts. Mainly limited to arid areas of western Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, but climbs into low bushes to avoid hot or wet surfaces. Can move quickly; most active during first few hours of darkness. Hides in holes, under logs, rocks, & brush piles during daytime. When disturbed, forms C-shaped coils & rubs scales together vigorously, making a loud rustling sound. Mainly eats available lizards & small mamals, but also scorpions & centipedes. Oviparous, clutch size not reported.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but probably potent & mainly hemotoxic. Symptomatology likely similar to that of other African carpet vipers including local swelling, incoagulable blood, systemic bleeding, & possibly death.

Echis ocellatus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinatus ocellatus, E. c. pyramidum

Common Names: West African carpet viper

Description

Small, stout-bodied carpet viper, adults usually 30-50 cm long (max. 65 cm). Body usually brown or gray or shades in between, w/ heavily-keeled scales in 27-34 midbody dorsal rows. Usually one of 2 different conspicuous dorsal patterns:a series of dark irregular crossbars on lighter background or a series of pale saddles w/ darker interspaces, belly lighter.

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Habitat

Mainly found in Savanna, well-wooded areas, & edges of forests. Likmited to western Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, occasionally climbs into low bushes to avoid hot or wet surfaces. Moves rather quickly. Mainly nocturnal; most active during first few hours of darkness. Hides in holes, under logs, rocks, & brush piles during daytime. Not aggressive unless disturbed. Oviparous w/ usually 6-20 eggs/ clutch. Eats varied prey, including available small mammals, birds, arthropods, lizards, amphibians, & other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Important cause of snakebite accidents & fatalities almost everywhere it is found; venom highly toxic to man. Venom primarily hemotoxic; internal & external hemorrhages common. Envenomation usually causes pain & swelling at bite site.

Echis omanensis

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinatus pyrimidum (in part), Echis colorata, E. coloratus, E. froenatus

Common Names: Oman saw-scaled viper, Oman-Sanrasselotter

Description

For description of the most closely-related species to this one, See Echis coloratus. Several scalation differences separate this from that species,& from other closely-related species, but these characters are not obvious without very close examination of carefully-restrained or preserved specimens.

Habitat

Found mainly in habitats which are very similar to those where E. carinatus in most common. Limited to eastern Oman & the United Arab Emirates

Activity and Behavior

Not much known. Probably mainly terrestrial, & mainly nocturnal. Probably oviparous (clutch size not reported), & probably preys on a variety of available small animals (mammals, lizards, birds, arthropods, etc.). For details about behavior of a closely related species, See Echis coloratus.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but probably mainly hemotoxic & causing symptoms similar to those caused by venoms of other, related members of this genus. For details about envenomation effects caused by one such closely-related species, See Echis coloratus.

Echis pyramidum

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinatus aliaborri, Echis khosatskii, E. megalocephalus, E. c. pyramidum, Echis pyramidum aliaborri, E. p. leakeyi, E. p. lucidus, E. p. pyramidum, Echis varia, E. varius borkini, E. v. darevskii, Scytale pyrimidum

Common Names: Egyptian carpet viper, Cherlin's saw-scaled viper, red carpet viper

Description

Description

Small, moderately stout, glossy, dark snake; adults usually 30-50 cm long (max. 70 cm); body black, short tail, fixed front fangs, smooth-scaled, 13 longitudinal midbody dorsal scale rows. Young individuals have 8-24 distinct narrow white or yellow crossbands which fade w/ age, at about 20 cm long, bands become pale grey & fade, very dark adults may be hard to ID.

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Habitat

Found in a wide range of woodlands, savannahs & forest clearing edges. Two distinctly separated populations; one from the western-most AFrican coast eastward through northwestern Uganda; the other from the western coast of Angola eastward to the eastern coasts of Tanzania, Zimbabwe & South Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, burrowing, mainly nocturnal, more active just after a rain. Hides in holes, underground cover or under logs in daytime. Inoffensive, can be handled, but may flatten & inflate body if molested, & may even bite if restrained too much. May lift front half of body & jerk body sideways. Eats mainly other snakes, lizards, frogs, & occasionally rodents.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, probably neurotoxic, but few reported bites of humans, & none of those reported to result in serious bite effects or envenomations of humans, so far.

Elapsoidea spp.

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elapsoidea spp.; there are currently 8 named species, but both E. chelazzii & E. trapei are extremely rare (the former may be extinct) & only the other 6 (addressed individually in this data base) are likely to be encountered by people at all.

Common Names: African garter snakes

Description

Small, moderately slender Elapids, adults usually 40-60 cm long; moderately slender, smooth-scaled, terrestrial, & nocturnal. Body of most species generally uniformly black or gray-black, w/ lighter dorsal crossbanding on adults of most species. Head bullet-shaped, not distinct from the neck. Fixed upper front fangs. Tail short.

Habitat

Generally found in coastal forest, highveld grassland, or arid savanna. All are limited to central & southern Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Shy, secretive, mainly nocturnal & mainly terrestrial (semi-fossorial) snakes that spend their days hiding under stones or in burrows. Sluggish, inoffensive, & seldom bite even in self-defense. Oviparous (clutch size not reported), probably prey on lizards, frogs, & other snakes, & maybe rarely on small rodents.

Venom Characteristics

Venom likely neurotoxic. Not considered lethal to man. No known antivenom produced.

Elapsoidea sundevallii

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elapsoidea sundevallii decosteri, E. s. fitzsimonsi, E. s. longicauda, E. s. media, E. s. sundevallii,

Common Names: Sundevall's (African) garter snake, Southern African garter snake, Natal garter snake (E. s. sundevallii), Kalahari garter snake (E. s. fitzsimonsi), high veld garter snake (E. s. media), long-tailed garter snake (E. s. longicauda), De Coster's garter snake (E. s. decosteri)

Description

Very similar to E. semiannulata in physical characters. Colors & patterns vary, smooth-scaled, 13 midbody dorsal scale rows, head bullet-shaped w/ eyes set well forward. Juveniles of all subspecies are strongly marked w/ 21-38 dark & light bands which are all nearly equally wide. Most subspecies lose distinct bands fairly early in life. Usually small, but long-tailed subspecies can reach 1.4 m long.

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Habitat

Found in a wide range of habitats, from coastal woodlands & dune thickets to high altitude grassland & slopes of Drakenberg mountains, & moist & dry savannah, from sea level to 1,600 m elevation. The Kalahari garter snake lives in semi-desert, & dry, rocky hill country.

Activity and Behavior

See Elapsoidea semiannulata.

Venom Characteristics

See Elapsoidea semiannulata.

Enhydrina schistosa

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Identification

Family: Hydrophiidae

Scientific Names: Disteira russelii, D. schistosa, Enhydrina valakadien, E. velakadien, E. valakadyn, E. valakadyen, E. vikadien, Hydrophis bengalensis, H. fasciata, H. schistosa, H. schistosus, H. subfasciata, Hydrus valakadyn, Polydontes annulatus, Thalassophis werneri

Common Names: Beaked sea snake, common sea snake

Description

Large sea snake, adults usually 1-1.2 m long (max. 1.6 m); rostral scale projects down past supralabial scales, head distinct, anterior body thick, posterior part of body very thick, skin looks "loose," scales somewhat imbricate (juxtaposed), w/ short central keel, 43-55 midbody scale rows, no suborbital stripe, w/ front fixed fangs, young dark gray above, whitish below, w/ dark gray or black annuli (most obvious dorsally), pattern obscured in adults (uniformly gray), tail oarlike.

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Habitat

Mainly found in shallow, muddy coastal waters, sometimes goes up into estuaries or rivers. Found in Indo-Pacific waters including both coasts of Thailand, Malaysia, & Indonesia; & from the Persian Gulf (south to Madagascar & the seychelles) to coastal waters of Queensland, Australia & western coast of New Guinea.

Activity and Behavior

Hunt bottom-dwelling fish (main prey) by touch in low-visibility estuarine waters. Often come into contact w/ native fishermen (or persons wading) in near-shore waters, leading to bites & envenomation. Not known to leave the water voluntarily, awkward on land. Grasps & holds onto victim when it bites. Ovoviviparous, w/ avg. 3-30 young.

Venom Characteristics

Very dangerous, w/ potent venom (LD50 in mice = 0.01 mg/kg) containing myotoxins & postsynaptic neurotoxins. Could potentially deliver enough venom in a single bite to kill 22 adult humans. Extremely dangerous & responsible for most of the human envenomations by sea snakes. Has caused numerous human fatalities.

Eristocophis macmahoni

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Eristocophis macmahonii

Common Names: McMahon’s desert viper, Macmahon-viper, Asian sand viper, leaf-nosed viper

Description

Small, stout-bodied, sand viper, adults usually 60-70 cm long (max. 80 cm); Body usually pale reddish-brown, tan or khaki, w/ lateral rows of dark spots w/ pale edges. Belly may be uniform or marked w/ faint irregular spots. Relatively large broad head w/ scattered dark flecks on top.

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Habitat

Found almost exclusively on sand dunes below 1,200 m elevation, in southwestern Afghanistan, southeastern Iran, & western Pakistan.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial (semi-fossorial). Most active during twilight & at night. Alert, bad-tempered. Buries itself in sand. Resorts to sidewinding movement when hurried or alarmed. When aggitated, hisses loudly, raises head & loop of body well above ground, & strikes w/ great vigor. Rarely encountered.

Venom Characteristics

Venom shows strong hemorrhagic activity. Symptoms may include local swelling & inflammation; abdominal pain & distention; & inability to swallow & open the eyes, suggesting possible neurotoxicity. Has caused serious human envenomations & deaths. No known antivenom currently produced.

Gloydius blomhoffi

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Ancistrodon blomhoffi, A. halys blomhoffii, Agkistrodon blomhoffi blomhoffi, A. blomhoffii, A. b. blomhiffii, A. b. brevicaudus, Gloydius blomhoffi blomhoffi, G. b. brevicaudus, G. b. dubitatus, G. b. siniticus, Gloydius blomhoffii blomhoffii, Gloydius brevicaudus, Halys blomhoffi, H. bloomhofi, Trigonocephalus blomhoffi, T. b. var. megaspilus, T. blomhoffii

Common Names: Chinese mamushi (G. b. brevicauda), Japanese mamushi (G. b. blomhoffi), Asiatic pitviper [This species is used to make "viper wine," & is also considered a delicacy for humans to eat in some cultures.]

Description

Small to medium-sized, fairly stout pitviper, adult usually 40-50 cm long (max. 70 cm); body gray, grayish brown, reddish brown, or blackish above, w/ irregularly-shaped lateral blotches (paired dark-edged, inverted U-shaped blotches to bulls-eyes in different subspecies), belly pale (often w/ limited grayish speckling), head dark w/ pale gray or beige sides.

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Habitat

Found mainly in marshes, swamps, open woodlands, plains & rocky open lower slopes of hills (varies w/ elevation), & in agricultural areas. Found in central China, Korea, Japan & eastern Russia (Kunashir Island).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & diurnal, but active at twilight in hot weather. Usually docile, inoffensive & sluggish. Vibrates end of tail rapidly & flattens entire body when annoyed; may strike if further harassed. Preys mainly on small mammals & birds. Ovoviviparous, 3-12 young per litter.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic w/ neurotoxic factors. Envenomation usually causes pain & slight bleeding at site, swelling, & tender & enlarged local lymph nodes. Systemic symptoms usually begin 1-6 hours after significant envenomation & may include double vision, neck rigidity, general aches, difficulty breathing. Mortality rates due to bites of this species are low (possibly due to availability & use of effective antivenoms).

Gloydius halys

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Ancistrodon halys cognatus, A. h. stejnegeri, Agkistrodon blomhoffi affinis, A. halys, A. h. affinis, A. h. caraganus, A. h. caucasicus, Coluber halys, Gloydius halys affinis, G. h. boehmei, G. h. caraganus, G. h. caucasicus, G. h. cognatus, G. h. halys, G. h. mogoi, G. h. liupanensis, G. h. stejnegeri, Trygonocephalus affinis, T. caraganus, T. halys, T. h. halys

Common Names: Asian pitviper, Alsashan pitviper, Bohme's pitviper, Caucasan pitviper, Gobi pitviper, Halys' viper, Halys' pitviper, Karaganda pitviper, Mumushi, Pallas' viper, Siberian mumushi, Siberian pitviper, Halys-Grubenotter, Halyskaarme, Halysorm, Vipere Halys, Mokasyn hali

Description

Medium-sized, rather stout-bodied, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 55-70 cm long (max. 90 cm). Body pale gray, olive, yellowish or dark brown; marked w/ dark gray crossbands w/ light olive or pale yellowish intervals between. Belly gray to dark gray w/ indistinct darker spots. Tail short, its tip yellowish, dark brown or black. Snout rounded, sometimes slightly upturned at tip.

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Habitat

Typically found in dry, rocky areas, from desert shrub to short grass or wooded steppes, coniferous forests, & in mountainous areas usually found at 500-4,000 m elevation. Widely distributed at higher elevations in central & southwestern Asia & Iran.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal. During warmer months, emerges only after sunset. Reports vary as to aggressiveness. Some say it usually will not strike unless repeatedly disturbed or hurt; others say it will bite w/ only minor provocation. Ovoviviparous (Clutch size not reported), mainly prey on small mammals & birds.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic w/ neurotoxic factors. Envenomation usually causes sharp pain at site, followed by edema & necrosis. May develop blood-filled blisters at bite site. Heart rate & blood pressure usually increase. Human deaths are uncommon & usually due to respiratory problems.

Gloydius himalayanus

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Ancistrodon himalayanus, Agkistrodon himalayana, A. himalayanus, Halys himalayanus

Common Names: Himalayan pit viper, Asiatic pit viper

Description

Medium-sized, rather stout, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 60-70 cm long (max. 90 cm); body usually darkish brown. Dorsal surface w/ series of dark longitudinal lines interrupted by paler crossbands. Belly white w/ black & red flecks. Relatively narrow dark postocular stripe.

Habitat

Mainly found in forest & rocky areas in high mountains at 1,500-5,000 m elevation, in the Hymalayian & nearby mountains of southern Asia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & mainly nocturnal. Often seen close to hiding place to which it retreats when disturbed. Takes refuge under fallen timber, in crevices in or under rocks, beneath boulders, ledges, stones, & fallen leaves. Usually sluggish & inoffensive; moves slowly. Ovoviviparous (litter size not reported), mainly preys on small mammals (& sometimes birds).

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Symptoms may include immediate burning pain, blood blisters, & edema. Victims generally recover within a few days. Human fatalities from envenomation by this species are not common. No known specific antivenom currently produced.

Gloydius intermedius

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Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Ancistrodon blomhoffi intermedius, Agkistrodon blomhoffi intermedius (in part), A. halys cognatus, A. h. intermedius, A. intermedius intermedius, Halys intermedia, Trigonocephalus intermedius

Common Names: Asiatic pitviper, Central Asian pitviper, Amur viper

Description

A large Mygalomorph spider w/ mature females reaching 4 cm body length. Builds a tubular or Funnel-shaped web. Usually dark brown to black (especially dorsally), w/ obvious "hairy" appearance except for the smooth, shiny dorsal top (carapace) of the cephalothorax.

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Habitat

Found mainly in margins of open forested sites or rocky areas w/ trees or brushy vegetation, often along paths or other sites where it can build its funnel web. Sometimes comes up near humans' houses. Limited to Australia (northeastern New South Wales & adjacent Queensland).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, run rapidly, climb well. Usually build a tubular or funnel-shaped web, then wait in it & ambush prey (usually insects & other arthropods; but may include small birds, lizards, frogs, etc.). Not quite as aggressive as A. robustus, but will rapidly attack & bite any intruder, including pets or humans. If threatened, will usually raise the front part of their body w/ first 4 legs spread & fangs extended forward.

Venom Characteristics

Very potent (maybe more potent & quicker-acting than the venom of A. robustus), neurotoxin. Envenomation symptoms may include: immediately severe pain, muscle twitching, salivation, lacrymation, nausea, vomiting, hypertension, confusion & coma. This is the only species in this genus which is known to have caused human deaths.

Hadronyche spp.

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Identification

Family: Hexathelidae

Scientific Names: Atrax spp. [Note: There are currently 32 named species recognized in this genus, but only one, H. formidabilis (addressed separately), poses a significant health threat, & potential lethality, to humans. Three other species (H. cerberea, H. infensa, & H. versuta) have reportedly inflicted very painful, relatively slow-healing bites on humans.]

Common Names: Funnel-web spiders (Australian), Australian trapdoor spiders

Description

Large, dark brown to black (dorsally) Mygalomorph spiders w/ body of a mature female about 3-4 cm long. Overall appearance "hairy" except for the smooth, shiny dorsal cephalothorax (carapace). Abdomen usually lighter colored than carapace. "See H. formidabilis".

Habitat

Found mainly in margins of forested or rocky areas, often along paths, wherever it can build its funnel-shaped web & await passing prey. Sometimes comes up near (or rarely) into human habitations. Limited to Australia (northeastern New South Wales & adjacent Queensland).

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, run rapidly, climb very well. Mainly prey on insects & arthropods, but also sometimes on small birds & frogs. Easily provoked, aggressive, & bites if disturbed or approached (varies by species).

Venom Characteristics

Very potent, fast-acting neurotoxin, very lethal to humans. May be more potent than the venom of A. robustus. Very few human envenomations have been reported. "See H. formidabilis".

Hapalochlaena maculosa

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Identification

Family: Octopodidae

Scientific Names: Octopus maculosus, O. rugosus [Note: This is one of only 2 species in this genus (the other species is H. lunulata) which have been reported to cause human fatalities. There are >650 named spp. of octopi (singular: octopus) currently recognized, & large specimens of many species can inflict a physically painful bite w/ their "parrot-like" beak (& all have slightly toxic salivary factors, too).]

Common Names: Blue-ringed octopus, Australian blue-ringed octopus, spotted octopus, common ringed octopus

Description

Very small octopus (widest spread of tentacles seldom spans 8 inches across, tip-to-tip). Body usually pale yellowish-brown (often tinged w/ pink or darker brownish), covered nearly all over (dorsally) w/ highly variable pattern of irregularly-shaped bright blue rings. Physical shape typical of all octopi (singular: octopus).

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Habitat

Mainly found along the eastern & southeastern coast of Australia, but has also been reported from other places in the tropical & sub-tropical western & southwestern Pacific & Indian Ocean. Mainly found above coral reefs, and in shallow near-shore marine water where lots of its typical prey are available. Probably also occurs in (but has not yet been reported from) coastal waters of New Caledonia, Taiwan & Vanuatu (et al.).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly prey on fish, crabs, & other small animals, in fairly shallow marine waters, usually in fairly clear water, above or near a coral reef or a sandy bottom. Not aggressive. Tries to avoid humans & larger animals, hiding in crevices or holes of reef or in bottom debris.

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin (almost identical to tetrodotoxin of puffer fish). Human deaths are due to respiratory paralysis. Due to its small size, this species' bites & envenomation may hardly be noticed at first. Bites usually occur when a person picks up one of these in shallow water & puts it on bare skin to show it to someone else. Symptoms may include: muscle weakness, tingling around mouth, numbness, breathing problems, nausea, vomiting, & death (often within 2-3 hrs.).

Heloderma horridum

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Identification

Family: Helodermatidae

Scientific Names: Heloderma hernandesii, H. horridum alverezi, H. h. charlesbogerti, H. h. exasperatum, H. h. horridum, Trachyderma horridum

Common Names: Beaded lizard, escorpion, heloderma negro, lagarto enchaquirado, talachini, tole-chini, galwemma, ciyx, siy, acaltetepon, caltetepon, guchachigishe, temacuil, temacuilcahuya

Description

Large, stout lizard w/ adults usually about 70 cm long (max. about 1 m), may weigh up to 6 lb., & live up to 30 yrs. Color & pattern varies, but usually dark brown w/ distinct reticulate yellowish (sometimes pinkish) markings. Skin covered w/ bead-like boney bumps (osteoderms). Tongue pinkish (vs. black for Gila monsters). Tail usually w/ 5-7 pairs of pale rings on dark background.

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Habitat

Found mainly in tropical deciduous forests, but also in thornforest & tropical scrub, & some lower portions of pine-oak forests, along moderate elevations of western & southwestern Mexico, into southern & southeastern Guatemala (possibly along the border of western-most Honduras). Sometimes found near sea level but most common at 400-1,000 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly diurnal, nocturnal in hot periods. Eat other lizards (& esp. eggs of spiny-tailed iguana; or of other lizards or birds), other small animals, & sometimes insects. Usually sluggish, can flex sideways very quickly, activity temperature dependent, most active in cooler times of day (early morning, early night). Usually overwinter in mammal burrows or dens in rocky outcrops. Oviparous w/ average of 4-15 eggs/ clutch. Males may fight in mating season. Can climb 5 m up in a bush.

Venom Characteristics

Venom has several very toxic components, mainly potent neurotoxins, cardiotoxins or vasodilators. Reported toxicity varies, but sometimes comparable to some cobra venoms. Documented to have caused human deaths. Venom from glands in lower jaw, intoduced along grooved teeth, via normal bites & is always expelled during a bite (i.e., have no separate control of venom release as do most venomous snakes). Hang on doggedly when they bite.

Heloderma suspectum

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Identification

Family: Helodermatidae

Scientific Names: Heloderma suspectum cinctum, H. s. suspectum

Common Names: Gila monster, escorpion

Description

Moderately large, rather stout terrestrial lizard, adults usually 35-45 cm long (rarely >55 cm), may weigh up to about 3 lb., & may live 30 yrs. Body covered w/ smooth, rounded beadlike bumps (osteoderms). Color & pattern vary w/ age, subspecies & locality. Usually w/ a mixed yellowish, pink & orangish dorsal body background w/ black legs & dark dorsal cross-bands or saddles. Tail usually w/ 4-5 dark rings; forked tongue black (not pink, as in beaded lizards).

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Habitat

Most common & wide-spread in desert & mesquite-grassland, but also in pine-oak forest, tropical deciduous forest, & thornforest; usually in fairly moist rocky foothill regions. Found from southwestern Utah southern Nevada & California southward through Arizona & southwestern New Mexico, into Sonora & Sinaloa states of northwestern Mexico; from sea level to >1,500 m elevation. May be sympatric w/ beaded lizards in parts of Mexico.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial; often hide in burrows or rocky dens in night & hotter parts of the day. Usually sluggish, activity is usually temperature-dependent, but can flex sideways very quickly. Eat other lizards, reptile or bird eggs, & other small animals & birds (& insects). Males may fight during mating season. Oviparous w/ usually 2-12 eggs/ clutch reported. Can climb 2.5 m up into a bush.

Venom Characteristics

Venom contains several factors, mainly potent neurotoxins, cardiotoxins or vasodilators. Bites may be very painful, w/ edema, nausea, vomiting, numbness, heart disfunction, etc.; & envenomated humans' recovery is slow. Reported to cause human deaths, but not well documented. Venom from glands in lower jaw, introduced via grooved teeth & is always extruded during a bite (i.e., no voluntary control of venom release, as for most venomous snakes). Hang on doggedly when they bite.

Hemachatus haemachatus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Aspidelaps haemachates, Coluber haemachates, Naja capensis, N. haemachates, Sepedon haemachates, Sipedon haemachates, Vipera haemachate, V. haemachates

Common Names: Rinkhals, ring-necked spitting cobra, ringhals, Ringhalskobra

Description

Medium-sized to large, fairly stocky, keeled scales in 17-19 dorsal rows, fixed front fangs, adults avg. about 1.0 m long (max. 1.5 m); body usually olive to dark-brown or dull black above & below, w/ many irregular pale whitish or yellowish (maybe pale brown) crossbands; one or 2 white crossbars on the underside of the throat.

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Habitat

Found mainly in veld & open country, coastal plains, & grasslands, from sea level up to 2,500 m elevation. Limited to southern & eastern South Africa & 4 adjacent countries.

Activity and Behavior

Most highly specialized of "spitting" cobras; ejects venom in fine spray to 1-2 m., approached suddenly, rears up & expands hood, displaying vivid black throat (may be bright red or yellowish). If approached closely, may drop to ground, roll over w/ belly up & feign death. Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal, but may bask. Ovoviviparous w/ 9-60 (avg. 20-30) young/litter; eats various small animals (toads, birds, mammals).

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin, usually "spits" venom at victim, although bites & fatalities rare. Humans encounter these fairly often within their range.

Hemiaspis daemelii

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Denisonia daemelii, Drepanodontis daemelii, Hemiaspis daemelii, Hoplocephalus daemelii, H. suboccipitalis

Common Names: Grey snake, Daemel's marsh snake, marsh snake

Description

Small, slender, smooth, keeled scales, adults about 70 cm long; body mainly plain grey or brownish-gray, w/ scales appearing to be outlined by the darker underlying body. Sometimes w/ small lighter lines on head & along lips; belly only slightly paler than dorsum; few or no other contrasting marks.

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Habitat

Closely associated w/ aquatic habitats. Mainly found in coastal marshes & watercourses in forests & grasslands. Limited to coastal Queensland & New South Wales.

Activity and Behavior

Probably mainly nocturnal or crepuscular, secretive, hides under logs & vegetation. Not aggressive, even when disturbed. Viviparous 3-20 young/ litter, mainly eats skinks & their eggs & frogs.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, probably mainly neurotoxic, like other Elapids; only a few bites (human envenomations) recorded, w/ pain, swelling & limited local edema. No fatalities reported.

Hemiaspis signata

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Alecto signata, Denisonia signata, D. vagrans, Drepanodontis signata

Common Names: Red-bellied swamp snake, marsh snake, swamp snake, black-bellied swamp snake

Description

Small, slender, cylindrical snake, w/ smooth, keeled scales, adults about 70 cm long; body brownish-red or brownish-gray, a thin pale yellowish line along each side of head (through the dark, round-pupiled eye), & a wider yellow or cream line along lips. Body scales appear faintly outlined by darker underlying body color. Belly may be either distinctly reddish or blackish (not well explained in lit., but possibly differing w/ age, sex, or different subspecies).

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Habitat

Strongly associated w/ aquatic habitats along coastal swamps & streams through grasslands & forests. Limited to coastal areas of eastern Australia (Queensland & New South Wales).

Activity and Behavior

Not well known, but probably mainly nocturnal or active at dusk & dawn. Hides under logs & vegetation, eats mainly skinks & their eggs & frogs. Ovoviviparous w/ 3-20 young/ litter. Reportedly innocuous & non-aggressive even when disturbed.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, probably (mildly) neurotoxic like other Elapids, Human bites (envenomations) have been reported to produce local pain, swelling & edema, but no fatalities reported, so far.

Hemiscorpius lepturus

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Identification

Family: Hemiscorpiidae

Scientific Names: [ Note: Of 4 currently recognized species in this genus, this is the only one which humans encounter very often, & the only one which poses a significant medical threat.]

Common Names:

Description

Small to medium-sized scorpion, adults usually 50-85 mm long, w/ very flat-looking body (dorsoventrally thin). Usually yellow or pale yellow-brown w/ a dark dorsal median longitudinal stripe on cephalothprax & pre-abdomen. Postabdomen (& each of its individual segments) very long & thin (longer than the rest of the body combined), more pronounced in males than females. Pincers thick at base. Adults look similar to Centruroides spp. w/ long tails.

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Habitat

Most commonly reported from hot & humid sites (like near certain rivers or permanent oases) in the Middle East & southwestern Asia. Commonly comes into humans' homes located within its range.

Activity and Behavior

Not well known, but mainly nocturnal, preys mainly on insects & other arthropods. Usually hides its dorso-ventrally very flat body in very thin crevices or under objects.

Venom Characteristics

Very potent cytotoxin, w/ neurotoxic, cardiotoxic, & hemotoxic factors. Causes progressive spreading surface tissue necrosis (similar to effects of some Loxosceles venoms), often looks like 3rd degree burned areas & very slow to heal; hemolysis & secondary renal failure occur. A number of reported envenomations of humans have ended in death (in Iran, about 2-5% of stings reportedly show systemic effects). Human envenomations more common in colder months.

Homoroselaps dorsalis

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elaps dorsalis, Poecilophis dorsalis

Common Names: Striped harlequin snake, striped dwarf garter snake

Description

Small, cylindrical, very slender, adults usually 20-25 cm (max. 30 cm); 15 midbody dorsal scale rows, body black w/ conspicuous yellow vertebral stripe entire length, belly yellow-white. One of smallest snakes in Africa. Very short, fixed front fangs.

Habitat

Typically in high veld & montane grasslands, found mainly in old termite mounds, under logs or stones. Limited to northern regions of South Africa & Swaziland.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & fossorial (burrowing). Docile; reportedly "wriggles in ones hand, but rarely bites." Forages underground in tunnels & cracks. Rare & seldom seen. Ovoviviparous, very few eggs/ clutch (No. not reported). Feeds almost exclusively on thread snakes (Leptotyphlops spp.).

Venom Characteristics

Venom likely neurotoxic but considered to have very little effect on man. Venom yield minute. Fangs probably too small & short to effectively penetrate normal human skin & enable envenomation. No known antivenom produced.

Homoroselaps lacteus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Coluber lacteus, Elaps lacteus

Common Names: Spotted harlequin snake

Description

Small, slender, cylindrical, adults avg. 30-40 cm long (max. 61 cm); dorsal scales smooth, in 15 midbody rows, body color varies, head mostly black above w/ most scales dotted yellow & orange; brightly colored, usually w/ alternating black & yellow bands & a row of dorsal orange (rarely yellow) spots, each at the top of a yellow band. Belly dark to yellow-white w/ each scale yellow-edged.

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Habitat

Found in a wide range of habitats from loose coastal bush to savanna & even semi-desert; mainly in sandy soils. Limited to Losotho, South Africa, & Swaziland.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & fossorial. Spends much time underground; particularly partial to termite nests. Docile; generally does not strike when molested, but wiggles violently as an evasive measure to escape as quickly as possible. Ovoviviparous, 6-16 young/ litter, eats mainly other fossorial lizards & snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Venom likely neurotoxic but considered to have very little effect on man. Venom yield minute. Fangs may be too short to penetrate skin except in webbing between fingers or toes. A young boy bitten (envenomated) in webbing between his fingers by a 25 cm long H. lacteus, had immediate pain, swelling for 3 days, & pain lasting 5 days. No known antivenom produced.

Hoplocephalus bitorquatus

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Alecto bitorquata, Denisonia angulata, D. revelata, Hoplocephalus sulcans, H. waitii

Common Names: Pale-headed snake, broad-headed snake

Description

Small, slender, adults usually 80-100 cm long; dark body w/ thin light yellow patterning of irregular crossbands, pale head, head unusually broad for size & proportions of body.

Habitat

Found in rock outcroppings, under rock slabs & in crevices between rocks, w/ no contact w/ soil or vegetation. Limited to eastern Australia (Queensland & New South Wales).

Activity and Behavior

Not much known, mainly diurnal & terrestrial (saxicolous), hiding under & between rocks on barren rock outcroppings. Feed on lizards, frogs & small mammals which share their general habitat. Ovoviviparous, w/ usually 4-20 young/ litter.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, mainly hemotoxic, procoagulant, few reported bites of humans, no reported fatalities, but still considered potentially dangerous.

Hoplocephalus bungaroides

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Alecto bungaroides, A. variegata, Elapocormus bungaroides, Naja bungaroides [currently Australia's most endangered snake, due to destruction of their habitat.]

Common Names: Broad-headed snake, Breitkopfnotter

Description

Small, slender, agile, adults usually 80-100 cm long; body black, w/ dorsal pattern of yellowish scales roughly resembling chain links, head unusually broad for body size & shape.

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Habitat

Found only in rock outcroppings in eastern Australia (Queensland & New South Wales).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly diurnal & secretive (saxicolous), hide under rock slabs or in crevices between rocks (not near soil or any vegetation) on rock outcroppings, feeding on velvet geckoes, frogs & small small mammals that share their habitat. Ovoviviparous, 4-20 young/ litter.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, few bites or envenomations of humans, no reported fatalities, but considered potentially dangerous. Mainly hemotoxic, procoagulants.

Hoplocephalus stephensii

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Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Stephens's broadheaded snake, Stephens's banded snake

Description

Small, slender, agile, strong, w/ unusually broad heads for their body size, adults usually 80-100 cm long; body mainly black w/ irregular stripes or crossbands of pale yellow or whitish scales.

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Habitat

Mainly found in rocky outcroppings away from soil, vegetation, or rock-on-soil contact. Limited to moderately large rock outcroppings of coastal regions of Queensland & New South Wales, Australia.

Activity and Behavior

Arboreal, mainly diurnal, rock-dwelling (saxicolous), hiding below rock slabs, or in crevices between rocks, on large outcroppings. Feed mainly on lizards, frogs, & small mammals which live in the same habitats.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but mainly hemotoxic, procoagulants, few bites or envenomations reported, no fatalities reported. Still considered potentially dangerous to humans.

Hottentotta alticola

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Buthus alticola (in part)

Common Names: Black scorpion

Description

Medium-sized scorpion, adults usually 50-70 mm long (max. 80+ mm). Body usually very dark brown above (sometimes tinged w/ green or dull yellowish-brown), lighter greenish or yellowish along sides. Legs & pedipalps yellowish-green; cauda mainly yellowish-green, except 5th segment very dark. Tips of pincers dark brown.

Habitat

Found in a variety of habitats, from seasonally dry to semiarid sites (sometimes in desert margins), w/ mainly sandy & rocky soil & scattered vegetation. Has been reported from some agricultural sites, but is not common in urban settings. Found mainly at moderate to higher elevations (mainly at 500-1,000+ m) in various parts of its fairly extensive geographic range in south-central Asia.

Activity and Behavior

May be both diurnal (in colder months) and nocturnal (during warmer months), & mainly terrestrial (but often climbs rough surfaces). Ovoviviparous, & preys on available insects & arthropods. Tends to avoid humans (& other larger animals) but will sting quickly if molested, stepped on, or trapped within clothing being donned.

Venom Characteristics

Not well studied, but probably mainly neurotoxic w/ some cytotoxic factors. Has reportedly caused a number of painful human envenomations, w/ localized swelling, redness & discoloration, but no human fatalities documented, so far.

Hottentotta minax

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Buthus minax, Buthotus minax, Hottentotta minax minax, H. m. niloticus, H. m. occidentalis, H. m. tigrinus

Common Names:

Description

Medium-sized fairly stout-bodied scorpion, adults seldom exceed 70 mm long. Body usually medium to dark brown (often reddish), darker on top, w/ lighter margins, often w/ dark spots or blotches, & obvious keels on dorsal carapace & preabdomen form an "H-shaped" & a lyre-shaped pattern, legs & pedipalps (& pincers) lighter brown to yellow-brown. Pincers rather thick-based w/ long, thin tips; often w/ 5th (& often 4th) caudal segment & telson very dark.

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Habitat

Mainly found in seasonally dry to semi-arid sandy-soiled or rocky areas w/ sparse (generally scrubby) vegetation. Found in north-central & eastern Africa (from Tanzania to Egypt & west into Chad & Libya). Sometimes found near human homes.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, but sometimes active in morning or evening twilight (ambient temperature affects activity). Mainly terrestrial, occasionally climbs rough surfaces (onto rocks, logs, walls or tree trunks). Preys on available insects & other arthropods.

Venom Characteristics

Not well studied, but mainly neurotoxic, has reportedly caused human fatalities within its range. Localized & systemic symptoms are similar to those caused by venom of H. saulcyi.

Hottentotta saulcyi

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Buthus saulcy, Buthotus saulcy

Common Names: Black scorpion, Saulcy's scorpion

Description

Medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied scorpion, adults usually 60-70 mm long (max. 80+ mm). Body very dark brown to black, w/ distinct keels on dorsal carapace & preabdomen which form an "H-shaped" & a lyre-shaped pattern. Body margins, legs & pedipalps all lighter (usually medium to dark brown), 5th (& often 4th) caudal segment & telson very dark (almost black). Pincers thick at base but have relatively long, thin tips.

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Habitat

Most often found in dry to semi-arid sites, sometimes in accumulated organic debris or rock crevices in sparsely-vegetated areas. May come into agricultural sites & occasionally around houses. Only reported from the Middle East.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, but may hunt during dusk or dawn periods or soon after a rain. Usually hide under debris or in natural or artificial crevices, or under rocks during the day. Mainly prey on available insects or other arthropods, sometimes cannibalistic. Tend to avoid humans but will sting defensively when molested. stepped on, etc.

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxic factors can cause serious systemic effects (often delayed 1-24 hrs.) in humans, including: hypertension, rapid heart rate (tachycardia), fluid in the lungs (pulmonary oedema), & death. Usually causes moderate local pain, swelling & redness at sting site. Small children usually more severely affected than adults.

Hottentotta schach

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names:

Description

Small to medium-sized, moderately stout-bodied scorpion, adults usually 40-60 mm long (max. about 70 mm). Body medium to dark brown, somttimes w/ slight yellowish or reddish tinge. Dorsal keels on carapace form an "H" & a lyre-shaped pattern, 5th (often 4th) caudal segment & telson very dark. Body margins, legs & cauda usually mainly lighter brownish.

Habitat

Found mainly in seasonally dry to arid sites w/ sandy soil, often rocky. Reported only from Iran & Iraq, so far. Sometimes found around edges of oases or agricultural lands.

Activity and Behavior

Not well documented, but mainly nocturnal (may be active at dusk or dawn, or after a rain), & terrestrial (but can climb rough surfaces). Preys mainly on available insects & arthropods. Activity level & timing affected by ambient temperature & prey availability.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, causing similar symptoms to those listed for H. minax. Has been reported to cause serious envenomation & occasional fatalities of humans.

Hottentotta spp.

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Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: [ Note: There are currently 19 recognized named species in this genus, but only a few, which are detailed individually (separately) here, are of human health significance. Others are very seldom encountered &/ or have much less potent venom.]

Common Names: Some spp. are called "black scorpions."

Description

Most species in this genus are medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied scorpions 40-80 mm long, usually brownish, dark-bodied (above) w/ lighter brown or yellowish legs & pincers (patterns vary by spp.). Cauda of most species are pale brownish to yellowish w/ 5th (& sometimes 4th) segment & telson very dark (often nearly black). Dorsal keels form "H-shaped" & lyre-shaped patterns on the

Venomous Animals and Plants (Last Major Update: Feb 2008)

Acalyptophis peronii

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Acanthophis antarcticus

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Acanthophis barnetti

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Acanthophis hawkei

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Acanthophis laevis

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Acanthophis praelongus

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Acanthophis pyrrhus

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Acanthophis rugosus

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Acanthophis spp.

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Acanthophis wellsi

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Adenorhinos barbouri

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Agkistrodon bilineatus

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Agkistrodon contortrix

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Agkistrodon piscivorus

Venomous Animals and Plants
(Last Major Update: Feb 2008)