Insects can inflict discomfort, pain, and illness in man by annoying, stinging, biting, and transmitting disease. When military personnel are sent into combat and placed in rugged and remote situations, insects can have a devastating impact. Typhus fever, a disease transmitted by lice, killed 17,000 Spanish soldiers in 1489, incapacitated 30,000 French soldiers in 1528,¹ contributed to the retreat of Napoleon’s Army from Moscow in 1812, and caused the death of millions of soldiers and civilians during WWI.²

Medical Entomology is the study of insects, spiders, ticks, and mites (collectively referred to as arthropods) and the discomfort, pain, and diseases they cause. The profession originated with the discovery of mosquito transmission of a parasite (filarial worms) in 1878.³ This was followed by the discovery of the mode of transmission of many other arthropod-borne diseases such as malaria and plague. Military medical entomology began in 1900 when Major Walter Reed and his colleagues demonstrated the transmission of yellow fever by mosquitoes. During peacetime and war, military medical entomologists have been called on to protect military personnel and supplies from arthropods, the diseases they transmit, and the damage they cause.

In WWI, typhus was the primary arthropod-borne disease threat to the military in the European Theater. However, during the war, Army training camps located in the southern part of the United States were mosquito ridden, and produced almost 10,000 cases of malaria. Still, there was little interest on the part of the military in commissioning entomologists to combat arthropod-borne diseases; only 8 entomologists were commissioned by the Army during WWI and only 14 were commissioned between WWI and WWII.⁴

By 1940, much of Europe was at war. The Japanese had built a formidable war machine capable of challenging the United States. The possibility of war in the Pacific would mean committing men to combat in areas with arthropod-borne diseases. Malaria was the most serious health hazard facing American troops in the South Pacific during WWII. An estimated 85% of US forces serving there became infected with the disease.⁵ This led General Douglas MacArthur to conclude: "This will be a long war, if for every division I have fighting the enemy, I must count on a second division in the hospital with malaria and a third division convalescing from this debilitating disease."

Others in the military recognized the potential impact of arthropod-borne diseases on military campaigns. The Navy Medical Department established the Hospital Volunteer Specialist Group, and entomologists were considered an important part of that Group. The first Navy entomologists were commissioned in May of 1941. During the war, the US military had a total of 771 specially trained personnel combating malaria and other arthropod-borne diseases in the field. Army entomologists staffed 17 malaria survey detachments.⁶ By the end of the war, the Navy had over 200 entomologists.⁷

After WWII, few entomologists remained on active duty, and those that did turned their attention to developing insect control equipment and materials in cooperation with the US Department of Agriculture. In 1947, the US Air Force was established as a separate military service. The first Air Force entomologists were given the same Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) as their Army counterparts until a specific Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC) was established. The Korean War was a catalyst for the establishment of the new Air Force Medical Entomology career field. The Air Force program began with two individuals, John M. Geary and Lewis F. Affronti. The latter resigned in 1958 and the former went on to serve as Director of the Armed Forces Pest Control Board before his retirement in 1969. The initial work performed by Air Force entomologists involved the use of aircraft to disperse pesticides over large areas to control disease vectors.

Several of the first entomologists in the Air Force were aviators during WWII. They pursued advanced degrees in entomology after the war and returned to active duty after completing their degree program. Claude T. Adams, a B-17 pilot in Europe, was captured and held as a prisoner of war in Germany from September 12, 1944 to May 8, 1945. He went on to obtain a BS degree from Emory University, and MS and PhD degrees from the University of Florida. He returned to active duty in the Air Force in 1956, served as a medical entomologist including two tours in Vietnam, and retired in 1972. Wesley R. Nowell served as a B-29 pilot in the Pacific Theater. After the war, he completed BS, MS, and PhD degrees at Stanford University. He was recalled to active duty during the Korean conflict for service as a Medical Entomology consultant and Commander of the 1^st Epidemiological Flight. Prior to his retirement in 1978, he served in many capacities including that of the first Associate Chief for the Medical Entomology career field. Dean A. Garrett was a B-17 tail gunner from 1942-45. He earned a BS degree in Agriculture from Oklahoma State University before being recalled to active duty in 1950 and eventually served in Korea. He returned to Oklahoma State University for MS and PhD degrees in entomology, continued his Air Force career as a Medical Entomologist with assignments in the Philippines, Turkey, and the US, and retired in 1977.

Since their inception as a separate career field, Air Force entomologists have focused on the protection of military personnel against the discomfort and diseases caused by arthropods. An Operational Entomology Course currently taught at the School of Aerospace Medicine prepares Air Force personnel to identify and suppress arthropod-related problems during military conflicts. The techniques were successfully applied in the Gulf War, Operation Restore Hope, Operation Provide Comfort, and other deployments. As environmental concerns became more important to the Air Force, entomologists – with their strong biological backgrounds – were natural candidates for diverse duties in environmental management. Today, Air Force Medical Entomologists manage environmental programs, provide broad biological consultant services to Air Force operations, and continue the traditional role defined by pioneering entomologists more than a century ago.

REFERENCES CITED

1. Snyder, J.C. 1959. The Typhus Fevers. in Viral and Rickettsial Infections of Man, T. M. Rivers and F. L. Horsfall, eds., J.B. Lippincott Co, Philidelphia, PA. pages 799-800.
2. Faust, E.C., P.F. Russell, and R.C. Jung. 1976. Clinical Parasitology. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. page 636.
3. Ibid. page 362.
4. Peterson, R.V., M.T. Wooster, and J.T. Need. 1993. The History of Navy Entomology. Obtained from the Navy Entomology Website.
5. Cunnion, S.O., T.H. Dickens, D.A. Ehrhardt, J.T. Need, and J.G. Wallace, editors. 1984. Navy Medical Department Guide to Malaria Prevention and Control. Navy Environmental Health Center, Norfolk, VA. pages 1-2.
6. Shultz, H.A. 1992. 100 Years of Entomology in the Department of Defense. In: Insect Potpourri, Adventures in Entomology, J. Adams (ed.), Sandhill Crane Press, Gainesville, FL. page 64.
7. Peterson, R.V., M.T. Wooster, and J.T. Need. 1993. The History of Navy Entomology. Obtained from the Navy Entomology Website